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Trauma, Bearing Witness and the Work of Showing up
Trauma is often described as both an event and a wound, something that happens to a person and something that stays with them. What stands out most to me from our course discussions is how trauma is not simply stored in memory but in the body, behavior, and relationships. Bessel van der Kolk argues that trauma “rewires” the nervous system, shaping one’s capacity for connection, safety, and self-regulation. This concept becomes especially relevant when thinking about the systems and institutions, schools, juvenile justice programs, community centers, where individuals are expected to function as though trauma is not silently directing their every response. Recognizing the embodied nature of trauma invites us to rethink not only how we treat it but how we relate to people living in its aftermath.
One question that continues to trouble me is: Are our systems truly equipped to recognize trauma, or do they unintentionally punish its symptoms? In working with youth affected by the juvenile justice system, many practitioners report seeing behaviors, withdrawal, aggression, impulsivity, that are labeled as defiance rather than hypervigilance or survival responses. Research by the National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN) suggests that trauma-informed juvenile programs lead to lower recidivism and improved emotional health, yet implementation across states remains uneven. Evaluating these programs reveals both promise and limitations: while trauma-informed care trainings have increased awareness among staff, they often fall short without structural changes such as reduced caseloads, consistent mentoring relationships, and spaces for youth to process emotion safely. Awareness alone is not enough; trauma-responsive systems require material and relational transformation.
Cultural competency also plays a crucial role in how we interpret trauma. Scholars like Thema Bryant emphasize that trauma cannot be separated from cultural context. What is perceived as “acting out” in one cultural frame may be a culturally rooted coping mechanism or a response to intergenerational stressors. Programs that ignore the historical and communal dimensions of trauma risk retraumatizing the very people they aim to help. For example, a standardized therapeutic model may be less effective for communities with collective healing traditions that prioritize family, storytelling, or spiritual practices. Being culturally attuned does not simply mean being aware of cultural differences, it requires humility, listening, and a willingness to allow communities to lead their own healing processes.
Another essential dimension of engaging trauma work is acknowledging the emotional toll it takes on practitioners. Vicarious trauma and compassion fatigue are not abstract concepts but daily realities for those in helping professions. If we are to sustain ourselves in this work, we must view self-care not as an optional luxury but as an ethical obligation. This means moving beyond surface-level self-care strategies and addressing systemic issues: workloads too heavy to allow reflection, workplace cultures that discourage vulnerability, and support systems that are inadequate. Effective self-care in trauma-heavy environments includes supervision grounded in empathy, peer support, reflective practice, and policies that protect workers’ mental health. We cannot show up authentically for others if we are slowly eroding from within.
Ultimately, my stance is that trauma-responsive practice must be relational at its core. Whether in classrooms, community programs, or justice systems, people heal in the presence of safety, respect, and attuned connection, not checklists or bureaucratic procedures. The heart of trauma work lies in bearing witness without judgment and honoring the resilience people carry despite harm. If we want to build systems that truly support healing, we must shift from asking, “What is wrong with this person?” to “What has happened to them, and how can we walk with them toward restoration?” This shift is not just therapeutic; it is profoundly human.
References:
Van der Kolk, B. A. (2014). The body keeps the score: Brain, mind, and body in the healing of trauma. Viking.
Bryant, T.-D. (2022). Homecoming: Overcome fear and trauma to reclaim your whole, authentic self. TarcherPerigee.
National Child Traumatic Stress Network. (n.d.). About child trauma. https://www.nctsn.org/what-is-child-trauma/about-child-trauma
Ko, S. J., Ford, J. D., Kassam-Adams, N., Berkowitz, S. J., Wilson, C., Wong, M., Brymer, M. J., & Layne, C. M. (2008). Creating trauma-informed systems: Child welfare, education, first responders, health care, juvenile justice. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 39(4), 396–404. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.39.4.396
Figley, C. R. (Ed.). (1995). Compassion fatigue: Coping with secondary traumatic stress disorder in those who treat the traumatized. Brunner/Mazel.
How current veterans can use ancient visual arts to recover from PTSD
The post-traumatic stress disorder diagnosis was officially introduced in the 1980s, but the condition has existed for millennia. Ancient Assyrian texts from Mesopotamia, more than 3000 years old, describe soldiers afflicted with symptoms that resemble PTSD. These soldiers were said to have been hearing and seeing the ghosts of enemies they killed in battle (Becker, 2015). Another example would come centuries later in ancient Greece. A Greek soldier named Epizelus was struck with blindness after he witnessed a comrade being struck down by a 'giant' in the Battle of Marathon. This was in spite of the fact that Epizelus was not physically wounded himself (Becker, 2015). In the same battle was the Greek playwright, Aeschylus of Athens. Aeschylus survived, but lost his brother in the fighting (Thinkingliketheancients, 2015).
The Ancient Greeks had an interesting way of coping with war trauma, ritual reintegration through Greek drama. Aeschylus wrote the Oresteia trilogy, where a cycle of tragedy was set in motion when the warrior king Agamemnon returned home only to be murdered by his wife, because he had sacrificed their daughter before leaving to fight in the Trojan War. Another Athenian playwright, Sophocles, served as an officer in the wars against the Persians. He would go on to write the play Ajax, which ends with the suicide of one of the greatest heroes of the Trojan War. According to Dr. Bessel van der Kolk, this play reads like a textbook example of traumatic stress. Writer and director Bryan Doerries would come to discover the therapeutic potential of this play after arranging a reading of it for hundreds of marines in San Diego. Doerries, who had previously turned to ancient Greek texts in college to cope with the loss of his girlfriend, was so inspired by the reception of the reading that he started the "Theater of War" project with funding from the Department of Defense. Since then, the play was performed over 200 times around the world to give voice to the struggles of combat veterans, and help foster dialogue and understanding with their families and friends. Dr. van der Kolk attended one of these readings in Cambridge, Massachusetts. While he was there, there were Vietnam veterans, military wives, as well as recently discharged men and women from recent conflicts in the Middle East, who all lined up to behind the microphone. Lines from the Ajax play were quoted as people spoke of their struggles. Doerries would go on to say that "Anyone who has come into contact with extreme pain, suffering or death has no trouble understanding Greek drama. It's all about bearing witness to the stories of veterans"(van der Kolk, 2015).
In modern times, the default treatment for PTSD is traditional therapy and medication. But another ancient solution has been right under people's noses this whole time. One key factor to this that PTSD may have in fact been more prevalent in ancient times. In modern warfare, military personnel may fight without even seeing the eyes or faces of their enemy. Soldiers thousands of years ago generally did not have this luxury. Back then, the enemy was literally going to be right up in your face. Their expressions and screams are present as you strike them down, and the memory will linger forever. So in this way, one could argue that the ancient Greeks veterans in particular knew what they were doing when writing their iconic plays. And in those days, you wouldn't have much difficulty seeking out veterans to perform in or attend these performances. Most Greek males were citizen soldiers who seen their share of combat in their lives.
Bonus: JRR Tolkien was a veteran of the first world war, and his experiences are said to have had an impact on his writings. For me as a kid, one of the more obvious examples of this comes from Gandalf in Lord of The Rings, when he shouted "You shall not pass!". This may have been in reference to the infamous French battle cry "Ils ne passeront pas!" (They shall not pass) in the Battle of Verdun. In addition, descriptions of areas like the Dead Marshes mirror the devastation on the Western Front.
Works Cited
van der Kolk, B. A. (2015). The body keeps the score: Brain, mind, and body in the healing of trauma: Key takeaways, Analysis & Review. Instaread.
Becker, R. A. (2015, January 26). Ancient mesopotamian texts show PTSD may be as old as combat itself. PBS. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/ptsd-may-old-combat/
Meadows, D. (2009, July 29). Marathon post traumatic stress disorder. rogueclassicism. https://rogueclassicism.com/2009/07/29/marathon-post-traumatic-stress-disorder/
Thinkingliketheancients. (2015, February 13). Thinking on loss, pain, and Aeschylus. Thinking Like the Ancients. https://thinkingliketheancients.wordpress.com/2015/02/12/thinking-on-loss-pain-and-aeschylus/
Discipline Across Cultures: How Our Norms Shape Trauma—and Why Cultural Competency Matters
When we talk about trauma, we often focus on the event: the physical abuse, the neglect, or the chronic stressor that overwhelms a child’s developing system. But we sometimes overlook a critical piece of the puzzle—the cultural context that shapes how discipline is defined, practiced, and interpreted. What is considered normal parenting in one culture may be viewed as harmful or abusive in another. For professionals working with children and families, understanding these distinctions is essential for culturally competent and trauma-informed practice.
Culture as a Lens for Interpreting Harm
Discipline is not a universal concept. In many collectivist cultures, strict or authoritarian parenting—including physical punishment—is viewed as a tool for building moral character and responsibility. In contrast, many Western cultures conceptualize discipline in terms of communication, emotional regulation, and behavior modeling (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).
Research shows that children interpret discipline through the meaning it holds within their cultural context. Lansford and Dodge (2008) found that corporal punishment predicted fewer negative outcomes in societies where it was culturally normative compared to societies where it was condemned. This suggests that perception and cultural meaning influence how discipline is internalized. However, cultural acceptance does not erase physiological stress responses associated with pain or fear. Van der Kolk (2014) emphasizes that the body keeps the score regardless of intention, and repeated exposure to threat or unpredictability can alter neural development. Even calmly delivered physical discipline can activate survival responses in the developing brain (Rousseau, 2025, Module 3).
This means that while cultural framing matters, it does not fully protect against trauma-related biological effects.
When Cultural Norms Collide With Trauma-Informed Practice
In U.S. child welfare work, these differences are frequently observed. Families may rely on yelling, spanking, or rigid structure because these practices align with cultural traditions or community expectations. Practitioners must therefore discern whether a behavior is a culturally rooted discipline or maltreatment that may produce trauma symptoms.
A trauma-informed approach requires asking questions such as:
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Does the child experience the discipline as frightening or predictable?
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Is there evidence of hyperarousal, avoidance, dissociation, or running away?
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Is the discipline consistent, structured, and paired with warmth, or chaotic and fear-based?
A child may not be traumatized by strict discipline when the environment is emotionally safe and predictable. Conversely, a child may experience trauma even without physical punishment if emotional volatility or unpredictability is present (Perry & Szalavitz, 2017). Van der Kolk (2014) argues that trauma is fundamentally about losing a sense of safety and control, which varies from family to family and culture to culture.
Cultural Competency Is Not Cultural Excusal
Cultural competency requires understanding the cultural meaning behind parenting practices, but it does not require excusing practices that are harmful. A culturally informed trauma approach integrates neuroscience with respect for cultural values and traditions.
Practitioners can engage families by:
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Explaining the neurobiology of stress and how harsh discipline impacts the developing brain.
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Connecting parental goals (respect, obedience, character-building) to trauma-informed alternatives.
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Affirming cultural identity while guiding families toward safer, regulation-supportive strategies.
Culturally adapted parenting models and trauma-informed programs have shown strong engagement and outcomes when they integrate traditional values with scientific knowledge (Lau, 2006).
The Risk of Bias in Assessing Trauma Across Cultures
Lack of cultural awareness can cause significant harm. Practitioners may:
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Misinterpret culturally familiar discipline as safe.
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Pathologize culturally normative practices because they differ from their own upbringing.
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Inadvertently impose Western parenting norms.
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Damage rapport with families by invalidating cultural identity.
Watters (2010) warns that Western mental health frameworks often fail when exported without cultural adaptation. The same risk applies in child welfare and trauma work. Trauma-informed practice demands cultural humility—a reflective awareness of how one’s own worldview influences interpretation.
Integrating Culture and Neuroscience in Practice
Because trauma is shaped by context and meaning, trauma response must be culturally grounded. Helpful approaches include:
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Ask before assuming. Invite families to describe the values and beliefs behind their discipline practices.
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Align cultural values with trauma-informed alternatives. Show parents how their goals can be achieved safely.
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Center the child’s experience. If a child displays trauma symptoms, those must guide intervention regardless of cultural norms.
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Reflect on personal bias. Practitioners must examine their own assumptions about “appropriate” parenting.
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Use culturally adapted programs. Tailored interventions increase family engagement (Lau, 2006).
Conclusion
Understanding differences in discipline across cultures is essential to effective trauma work. Culture shapes how discipline is delivered and interpreted, but trauma shapes how discipline is felt. When practitioners integrate cultural context with trauma-informed neuroscience, they can protect children, respect families, and promote healing. Cultural competency is not an optional skill—it is the foundation of ethical and effective practice.
References
Gershoff, E. T., & Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2016). Spanking and child outcomes: Old controversies and new meta-analyses. Journal of Family Psychology, 30(4), 453–469. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000191
Lansford, J. E., & Dodge, K. A. (2008). Cultural norms for adult corporal punishment predict children's internalization of discipline and adjustment. Child Development, 79(6), 1629–1645. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01222.x
Lau, A. S. (2006). Making the case for selective and directed cultural adaptations of evidence-based treatments: Examples from parent training. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 13(4), 295–310. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2850.2006.00042.x
Perry, B. D., & Szalavitz, M. (2017). The boy who was raised as a dog: And other stories from a child psychiatrist’s notebook. Basic Books.
Rousseau, D. (2025). Module 3: Neurobiology of trauma [Course content]. Boston University MET CJ 720.
Van der Kolk, B. A. (2014). The body keeps the score: Brain, mind, and body in the healing of trauma. Viking.
Watters, E. (2010). Crazy like us: The globalization of the American psyche. Free Press.
Humanity in Trauma Work: A Reflection on Renewing, Culture, and Personal Care
by Adiely Cifuentes
Working in a trauma related field, especially in one that involves criminal justice, requires professionals to be very intricate in empathy. This semester as we unpacked trauma in class, a few things stood out to me that wasn't necessarily new, but always kept in the back burner until recently. Supporting people who are suffering requires individuals in this field to constantly renew our own mental, emotional and physical well being. If we don't intentionally seek care, we risk becoming the system that we are trying to fix. People in these fields become overwhelmed, detached, and majority of the time don't see people as humans. We have seen examples of this through the multiple readings that we did in the course, such as Night by Elie Wiesel, and The Standford Prison Experiment. During this blog post, I want to discuss and reflect on what we have learned while evaluating work done in the criminal justice field, and make a case for a more compassionate and cultural responsive that addresses trauma work.
Trauma Work Taking Tolls
One of the biggest misconceptions that I have realized within learning about trauma is how it only affects victims or clients. Vicarious trauma is a major topic that is barely discussed in our outside world, where it is deeply woven into helping many professions. As we have read and discussed in class, being chronically exposed to other's pain no matter what your environment might be, can reshape your whole nervous system. Although not often talked about, I consider trauma to be contagious.
For example, there were correctional officers that experienced PTSD at higher rates than veterans (Spinaris, 2012). There has also been social workers that have reported burning out because they care too deeply in the cases they constantly deal with that theres no form of decompressing or outlets of relief. Therapist also often report being exhausted and experience physical symptoms long after working with trauma survivors (Figley, 1995). If we expect these people that hold important jobs to protect our humanity, then institutions must find a way to protect their humanity too.
Learning from Trauma-Theorists
During our course, we have the honor to read Bessel Van Der Kolk's The Body Keeps the Score. This reading was able to reshape how we understand healing while emphasizing that trauma can change the brain and body. Healing is not just about addressing its symptoms, but the body as a whole. Van der Kolk explains how talk therapy often doesn't work on many people, especially in those that work in emotionally and trauma heavy fields. Almost everybody, if not everyone, carries some sort of embodied trauma. Their nervous system kicks in and gets stuck in in survival mode.
Although the book itself was a great read and there were many things that I was able to learn, I wished that there was more room for a deeper cultural analysis. Race, socioeconomic status, immigration status, disabilities, and cultural identities shape how trauma is experienced and also treated. His model could have benefitted from having more acknowledgment in these areas.
Critical Incident Stress Management
Critical Incident Stress Management, also known as CISM, is commonly known for first responders as way to balance out reactions after a traumatic event. This program is able to offer things such as debriefings, peer support, and psychoeducation (Mitchell and Everly, 1997). Some strengths from this approach is that it gives people time to process intense events as well as reduce isolation, and help normalize common trauma symptoms. As much as this sounds helpful and beneficial to those in need, there are also concerns that are raised. There could be that possibility that this practice can retraumatize individuals and it could also be used as a form of checklist instead of it being an ongoing care. I believe that CISM can be effective when its culturally responsive, rather than it being a "one-size-fits-all" ordeal.
The "Cultural Problem"
One thing that bothers me is how trauma work can be assumed as a universal experience when trauma can be deeply rooted culturally. Many Black communities experience trauma that is shaped by systemic racism, policing, and historical violence. There are also many immigrants that fear looking for help due to the idea of them potentially getting deported. Native communities also experience trauma through the lens of intergenerational harm and colonialism. If these professions don't understand important cultural context like these, they could unintentionally abnormalize normal survival responses. Trauma-informed care that is not culturally informed is not proper care.
Trauma Work Requires Structural Change
As a society, we need a cultural shift in how agencies support their own staff. Having quick one page checklists or pamphlets are not going to fix any issues, and so isn't changing workloads or workplace culture. Real change requires mandatory mental health check ins from managers, bosses, or supervisors, workload that doesn't exceed human limits, having cultural training, and providing therapists. Trauma-informed care has to include everyone, not just those that are seeking for professional services.
Healing the Healers
Trauma work requires a lot, but most importantly, it requires resilience and clarity. Theres a phrase that we have probably heard many times, but relates to this which is "Make sure to put your oxygen mask first before putting it on for others". Professionals that are in these fields cannot give what they do not have. To be able to support those that seek healing and help, workers need to know how to protect their own mental and physical well being. If we want a society and a justice system where everyone is treated humanely, we have to start by treating those that help us too. By implementing better policies, having better cultural understandings, and shift our way in how we view trauma, we can move forward by benefitting both the client and the worker.
Resources
Figley, C.R. (1995). Compassion fatigue: Coping with Secondary Traumatic Stress Disorder in Those Who Treat the Traumatized. Brunner/Mazel
Mitchell, J.T., & Everly, G.S. (1997). Critical Incident Stress Management (CISM): A New Era and Standard of Care in Crisis Intervention. Chevron Publishing
Rousseau, D. (2025) Module 1: Understanding Trauma and Resilience. Boston University, METCJ720: Trauma and Crisis Intervention
Spinaris, C., Denhof, M. & Kellaway, J. (2012). Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in U.S. Corrections Professionals. Desert Waters Correctional Outreach
Van der Kolk, B.A (2014). The Body Keeps the Score: Brain, Mind, and Body in the Healing of Trauma. Viking.
From Survival to Integration: Understanding EMDR Therapy
When we experience something overwhelming, and painful, the mind has a difficult time processing the event. The traumatic memory is then stored improperly, and the brain reacts as if the event is still happening and controlling the present. Instead of the experience being fully processed and integrated, it remains stuck in the subconscious mind without context showing up as emotional shutdown, dissociation, and anxiety.
Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) helps with traumatic experiences and responses including childhood trauma, sexual trauma, PTSD, prolonged stress, depression, anxiety, and emotional numbness. (EMDR) is a psychotherapeutic based therapy designed to integrate unresolved traumatic experiences and mental health issues that are challenging to describe and communicate and targets underlying causes. During history taking, clients not only review past events, but they also cover current concerns and future goals. (Rosseau, 2025).
It works by activating the brain's natural healing processes to discharge trauma and emotional imprints fragmented in the mind to sort and integrate the limiting beliefs and sensations linked to painful memories faster than traditional talk therapy to reduce emotional intensity in the mind and body by processing sensory memory.
EMDR is a structured approach using bilateral stimulation such as eye movement to activate regions in the brain responsible for memory and emotional regulation. The prefrontal cortex responsible for decision making, logic, and self regulation is able to reconnect with the emotional centers and improve distorted perspectives; this happens when the amygdala reconnects to the prefrontal cortex to reduce fear and overwhelming sensations. The structure relies on eight phases: story taking, preparation, assessment, desensitization, installation, body scan, closure, and reevaluation. (Rosseau, 2025). In an EMDR session, the licensed therapist will not only help identify triggers but also teach the patient grounding techniques to feel safe when sensations, thoughts, and feelings arise to empower the patient. During history taking, future goals are recorded to hold space for new belief patterns by visualizing healthy environments to regain stability.
Essentially EMDR accesses the ability to heal the fragmented subconscious mind that learned survival mechanisms of hyper arousal, hyper-vigilance, and other coping mechanisms that become difficult to explain when trauma impacts both the mind and body helping a trauma impacted person to-reclaim their sense of self. Van Der Kolk (2014) emphasizes agency and “restoring the ownership of body and mind” to envision and organize a life centered in choice, and safety.
References:
van der Kolk, B. A. (2014). The body keeps the score: Brain, mind, and body in the healing of trauma.Penguin Books.
Rousseau, D. (2025). Module 4: Trauma and the Criminal Justice System. Lesson 4:3: Treatment Approaches. Boston University, MET CJ 720: Trauma and Crisis Intervention.
Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy. Department of Mental Health. (2024, September 4). https://dmh.lacounty.gov/our-services/emdr/
Yoga and Trauma
Trauma stems from a disturbing experience that has a long-lasting effect on an individual's well-being. Van Der Kolk emphasizes that trauma imprints on the nervous system, it's not just a memory. Van Der Kolk states that self-awareness is "at the core of recovery" and that traditional talk-therapy is not a significant approach to treatment due to not properly addressing trauma within the body. (Van Der Kolk, 2014) Victims may feel like they're trapped in their bodies and are unable to calm down even if danger has passed or if there's no danger at all. Yoga therapy allows victims to control their movement, breath, and mindfulness and victims can move at their own pace. Yoga also allows victims to feel safe within themselves and have a reliable support system. Victims often struggle with finding a structured and supportive system, and yoga allows them to rely on themselves and be in control.
Yoga as a complementary therapy has only been utilized within the last 20 years and is used for pain management along with individuals that have psychological diagnoses. Trauma-informed yoga is often practiced with trauma survivors and typically touch is not involved but can be introduced once the individual consents to it and it can be used as a supportive presence. (Rousseau, 2025) Commands and demands are not integrated in yoga as a whole, rather it invited the mind and body to connect and unify. A study involving sixty-four women who had chronic, treatment-resistant PTSD was conducted by Van Der Kolk et al, (2014) and they were either assigned to trauma-informed yoga or supportive women's health education. Results showed that 16 of 31 participants that were in the trauma-informed yoga group no longer met PTSD criteria, whereas 6 of 29 participants in the women's health education group no longer met the criteria. (Van Der Kolk et al, 2014) Another study shows that incarcerated individuals also benefited from yoga. (Rousseau et al, 2024) The final results were that their stress decreased by 41%, mood increased by 30%, and there was an increase of self-growth.
More research and studies need to be conducted for additional support on how yoga has a positive effect on trauma and trauma treatments. However, studies that have been conducted show positive results and that it has positively impact on trauma victims. Victims are able to connect mentally and physically with themselves after trauma caused them to dissociate with themselves.
References:
Rousseau, D. (2025). Module 3: Neurobiology of Trauma. [Module Notes]. Blackboard, Boston University.
Rousseau, D., Bourgeois, J. W., Johnson, J., Ramirez, L., & Donahue, M. (2024). Embodied resilience: a quasi-experimental exploration of the effects of a trauma-informed yoga and mindfulness curriculum in carceral settings. International Journal of Yoga Therapy, 34(2024), Article-2.
Van der Kolk, B. A. (2014). The Body Keeps the Score: Brain, Mind, and Body in the Healing of Trauma
Van der Kolk BA, Stone L, West J, Rhodes A, Emerson D, Suvak M, Spinazzola J. Yoga as an adjunctive treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2014 Jun;75(6):e559-65. doi: 10.4088/JCP.13m08561. PMID: 25004196.
Rethinking “Defiance” — Why Trauma-Informed Approaches Are Essential in Juvenile Justice
According to the judicial system, young people have taught us something simple but often overlooked: behavior is communication, especially when trauma occurs in life. The more I learn about adolescent development, the more I realize how easy it is for the system to misinterpret responses to trauma as "misconduct" or "acts of rebellion" when, in reality, many of these reactions are due to the brain going into survival mode, and along with this, the nervous system becomes dysregulated.
The trauma and crisis intervention course and the documentary Inside the Teenage Brain helped me understand that the adolescent brain is not simply "immature" just because it is still developing. According to Rousseau, the prefrontal cortex, the part responsible for decision-making, emotion regulation, and impulse control, doesn't fully develop until around age 25. When trauma is added during this period, development is further disrupted and can even be put on hold (Rousseau et al., 2025).
This means that behaviors often labeled as defiance, bad attitude, aggression, or disobedience are, in reality, an attempt by the brain to protect itself or a reaction to a stressful situation. Fighting, fleeing, and freezing are not choices, but automatic survival responses shaped by past traumatic experiences.
This happens when trauma alters development.
Trauma affects not only emotions, but the entire developmental trajectory: physical, social, and neurological. Growing up in an unsafe environment disrupts:
the ability to regulate emotions
the ability to trust others, socialize, and have stable relationships
the ability to manage frustration, impulses, and anger
the ability to understand consequences
Children who grow up with abuse, neglect, or instability learn from a young age that the world is unpredictable. When they reach adolescence, they carry these adaptations with them. The problem is that detention environments—harsh discipline, yelling, isolation, lack of autonomy—often trigger the same trauma-related survival responses (“Trauma-Informed Care,” Rousseau et al., 2025).
Misinterpreting Trauma as Misbehavior
One of the most harmful assumptions in juvenile justice is the belief that young people make conscious and rational decisions. Neuroscience tells us otherwise. According to the documentary Inside the Teenage Brain (PBS, 2009), adolescents rely heavily on the amygdala—the emotional center—rather than the prefrontal cortex.
This explains why a teenager who a staff member yells at may react impulsively, withdraw, or walk away due to emotional dysregulation. Not because they want to be "disrespectful," or sometimes even consciously aware of that reaction, but because their nervous system perceives danger in any situation that is uncomfortable or stressful.
When we call it "defiance," we punish the reaction.
When we see it as trauma, we treat the cause.
Why Trauma-Informed Care Is Not Optional
The National Childhood Stress Network emphasizes that trauma-informed care should be standard practice throughout the juvenile justice system to better help young people address that trauma and lead more stable lives. This includes:
Universal trauma screening
Comprehensive assessments
Evidence-based trauma treatments
Staff trained in trauma and adolescent development
Collaboration with family and community
One of van der Kolk's (2014) most important insights is that healing begins when a young person feels safe enough to regulate their emotions and communicate without feeling judged. Safety—not control or punishment—becomes the foundation for change.
Promising Practices for Real Healing
A trauma-informed youth system would prioritize the following:
1. Emotional Regulation Skills
It teaches young people mindfulness and techniques for staying focused on the present, and helps them calm their nervous system to reduce stress and anxiety—skills many never learned at home.
2. Stable and Trustworthy Adults
Mentors, counselors, and staff who demonstrate consistency help rebuild the adolescent's capacity for trust, creating a trusting bond.
3. Predictable Environments
Structure helps traumatized adolescents feel safe. Chaos triggers trauma.
4. Family Involvement
Supporting families, friends, or any close individuals reduces the feeling of isolation many patients experience and helps repair fractured relationships, not directly with others, but within themselves.
5. Alternatives to Punitive Discipline
Instead of isolation or suspension, responses would focus on:
restorative conversations
reflective practices
social-emotional learning
positive reinforcement
These approaches help young people develop personal growth and a way to confront their fears.
A System That Works With the Brain, Not Against It
Trauma-informed juvenile justice isn't about being lenient, but about being effective in helping young people. When a young person responds to trauma with understanding instead of punishment—not to excuse self-destructive behaviors, but to help them develop the necessary tools to change those behaviors and lead a more stable, less fearful life—we are truly helping them.
From a developmental perspective, trauma-informed practices align with what the adolescent brain actually needs to heal and grow, emphasizing the completion of brain development that was interrupted by trauma. Punishment alone does not achieve this.
If the goal of juvenile justice is rehabilitation, then understanding trauma is fundamental to understanding the behaviors and actions young people exhibit, getting to the root of the problem. Because before we can change what young people do, we must understand what they have been through, in this case, the trauma they may have experienced
References
FRONTLINE. (2009). Inside the Teenage Brain (Season 2009, Episode 11) [Television series episode]. PBS SoCal. https://www.pbssocal.org/shows/frontline/episodes/frontline-inside-teenage-brain
Rousseau, D., Curan-Cross, C., Peterson, L., & Smithwick, L. (2025). Lesson 2.1: Stages of Adolescent Development [Blackboard]. Blackboard@BU.
Rousseau, D., Curan-Cross, C., Peterson, L., & Smithwick, L. (2025). Lesson 2.3: Trauma-Informed Care [Blackboard]. Blackboard@BU.
Van der Kolk, B. A. (2014). The body keeps the score: Brain, mind, and body in the healing of trauma. Viking.
Debunking Deterrence Theory with Trauma-Informed Science
Over the last several decades, the “tough on crime” narrative has served as a powerful political slogan that promises protection through punishment. Policies such as mandatory minimum sentences, aggressive policing, cash bail, and mass incarceration are routinely framed as necessary defenses against dangerous individuals (The Sentencing Project, 2024). However, data reveals that these policies disproportionately target marginalized groups. African Americans are incarcerated in state prisons at nearly five times the rate of white Americans, a disparity that illustrates the structural inequity embedded in these punitive measures (The Sentencing Project, 2021). This is also particularly troubling given that an estimated 70-90 percent of youth involved in the justice system have experienced significant trauma, including physical or sexual abuse and exposure to violence (Branson et al., 2017). When the system fails to integrate trauma-informed care and responds to complex behavioral struggles with punitive force, it reinforces the very conditions that contribute to future violence (Rousseau, 2025).
The tough on crime agenda is frequently justified through deterrence theory, which assumes that individuals weigh the costs and benefits of their actions and will refrain from criminality when consequences are certain, swift, and severe (Tomlinson, 2016). A trauma-informed perspective challenges the core logic of this claim. Trauma fundamentally alters the brain and nervous system, producing hyperarousal, dissociation, and impaired executive functioning. These physiological responses limit an individual’s capacity for deliberation and impulse control (van der Kolk, 2014). In moments of fear, dysregulation, or emotional overwhelm, people are often unable to engage in the rational calculations that deterrence theory presumes.
For survivors of complex trauma, the threat of legal punishment carries little weight when compared to the immediate need to manage intense fear, distress, and physiological overload (van der Kolk, 2014). As Elie Wiesel illustrates in Night, extreme suffering erodes the capacity for rational deliberation and leaves only a basic drive for self-preservation (Wiesel, 2006). Behaviors that develop in the aftermath of trauma, whether substance use to dull emotional pain or aggression deployed as protection, function as survival strategies rather than deliberate choices (van der Kolk, 2014). Within this context, harsher penalties do not deter. Instead, they replicate the trauma of powerlessness and control, punishing the instinct to survive and increasing the likelihood that individuals will continue to cycle through the correctional system. By destabilizing individuals and eroding resilience, deterrence-based policies create ripple effects that weaken community cohesion and compromise collective safety (DeVeaux, 2013).
By ignoring the neurological and psychological effects of trauma, deterrence theory misinterprets behavior as rational defiance rather than a conditioned response to chronic adversity (van der Kolk, 2014). If true public safety relies on trauma-informed care, the question becomes how to operationalize a system that shifts the focus from “What is wrong with you?” to “What happened to you?” (Rousseau, 2025). Answering this requires replacing punitive policies with restorative interventions that create stability, support emotional regulation, and build resilience so individuals can move out of reactive survival states and engage in the conscious decision-making necessary for lawful behavior (van der Kolk, 2014). It also requires sustained investment in mental health services and economic support rather than strategies that fracture families and communities (The Prison Policy Initiative, 2022). Real safety grows from resilience and healing supported by trauma-informed care rather than from punitive systems that reinforce the conditions that lead to harm (van der Kolk, 2014; DeVeaux, 2013).
Restoring Balance: Indigenous Wisdom and the Path to True Safety
Mainstream criminal justice systems prioritize control, isolation, and surveillance, tactics that undermine psychological safety, which is an essential prerequisite for behavioral change after trauma (Rousseau, 2025). Rather than protecting the public, this approach often deepens psychological distress and weakens individuals’ capacity for connection upon reentry into their communities (van der Kolk, 2014). By equating accountability with punishment, the system relies on coercion rather than cooperation and frequently re-traumatizes both offenders and victims (DeVeaux, 2013). In contrast, Indigenous approaches center justice on collective healing and relational accountability, values that align closely with the core principles of trauma-informed care (Bhat et al., 2025; Armour & Umbreit, 2004).
At the heart of Indigenous healing justice is the understanding that harm disrupts relational balance and that justice requires collaboration and empowerment rather than a top-down imposition of punishment (Bhat et al., 2025). This offers a critical intervention in countries like Canada, where Indigenous peoples account for approximately 5 percent of the national population yet represent more than 30 percent of federally incarcerated individuals, reflecting a systemic failure of the current model (Public Safety Canada, 2023).
Restorative models such as sentencing circles, peacemaking courts, and traditional healing lodges replace the adversarial structure of Western courts with dialogue, shared responsibility, and reintegrative shaming (Ontario Justice Education Network, 2016; Armour & Umbreit, 2004). These processes operationalize trauma-informed principles such as voice and choice by permitting participants to speak their truths and contribute directly to the resolution. By flattening hierarchical structures, these circles cultivate trust and transparency, acknowledging that trauma is relational and cannot be addressed in isolation (Chartrand & Horn, 2016). This relational approach produces measurable outcomes. A federal evaluation found that individuals who participated in Indigenous Justice Programs were 49 percent less likely to reoffend after five years compared to those processed through the traditional system (Department of Justice Canada, 2021).
Western punishment models, by contrast, often inflict new trauma even as they claim to restore justice. Incarceration and solitary confinement sever social connections, violating the principle of peer support that is essential for recovery (DeVeaux, M., 2013). These responses also tend to overlook intergenerational and structural forms of harm, including systemic discrimination, that contribute to criminalization (Department of Justice Canada, 2021). As the National Native American Boarding School Healing Coalition (2025) notes, healing cannot occur in isolation from historical truth. A holistic approach situates individual behavior within its broader historical context rather than treating the person as the sole source of wrongdoing, thereby avoiding the adverse consequences of stigmatization.
Indigenous restorative practices offer concrete examples of how trauma-informed principles can be put into action. The Navajo Nation Peacemaking Program draws on hozho, a philosophy of harmony and balance, encouraging individuals who have caused harm to understand their actions through mentorship and connection (Bluehouse & Zion, 1996). The power of forgiveness in restorative justice lies in its ability to release the victim from the negative control of the crime and rehumanize the offender, though this healing potential is often strongest when forgiveness remains an implicit and voluntary part of the dialogue rather than a mandated outcome (Armour & Umbreit, 2004). Canada’s Gladue Courts integrate cultural humility into legal processes by requiring judges to consider the effects of colonization and intergenerational trauma (Office of the Commissioner for Federal Judicial Affairs Canada, 2024). Together, these models show that justice can be both accountable and compassionate, affirming the trauma-informed principle of asking “what happened to you?” rather than “what is wrong with you?” (Rousseau, 2025).
Adopting Indigenous-informed frameworks requires recognizing that healing and accountability are inseparable. Indigenous restorative justice aligns with trauma-informed care while also expanding its reach by embedding individual repair within collective responsibility. Incorporating Indigenous community wisdom fosters a system in which safety, empowerment, and dignity are not aspirations but standard practice.
References:
Armour, M., & Umbreit, M. (2004, Feb. 18). The paradox of forgiveness in restorative
justice. Handbook of Forgiveness. The University of Minnesota
Bhat, N., Mehliqa, U., Ahmad Paul, F., & Bashir, A. (2025). Contextualizing Indigenous approaches to trauma-informed care in social work practice. Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/15313204.2025.2524351
Bluehouse, P., & Zion, J. W. (1996). Hozhooji Naat’aanii: The Navajo justice and harmony ceremony. NCJRS Abstract No. 168152. Office of Justice Programs. https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/hozhooji-naataanii-navajo-justice-and-harmony-ceremony-native
Branson, C. E., Baetz, C. L., Horwitz, S. M., & Hoagwood, K. E. (2017). Trauma-informed juvenile justice systems: A systematic review of definitions and core components. Psychological trauma : theory, research, practice and policy, 9(6), 635–646. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000255
Chartrand, L., & Horn, K. (2016). A report on the relationship between restorative justice and Indigenous legal traditions in Canada (Research and Statistics Division, Department of Justice Canada). Justice Canada. https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/jr/rjilt-jrtja/rjilt-jrtja.pdf
Department of Justice Canada. (2021). Black youth and the criminal justice system: Summary report of an engagement process in Canada (Engagement findings). https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/jr/bycjs-yncjs/engagement-resultat.html
Department of Justice Canada. (2021). Evaluation of the Indigenous Justice Program. Government of Canada. https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/cp-pm/eval/rep-rap/2021/indigenous-autochtone/rsca-erac.html
DeVeaux, M. (2013). The trauma of the incarceration experience. Harvard Civil Rights–Civil Liberties Law Review, 48, 257–278.
National Native American Boarding School Healing Coalition. (2025, September 29). Healing‑informed events to honor boarding school survivors update. https://boardingschoolhealing.org/healing-informed-events-to-honor-boarding-school-survivors-update/
Office of the Commissioner for Federal Judicial Affairs Canada, Action Committee on Modernizing Court Operations. (2024). Trauma‑informed approaches to Gladue processes: A statement from the Action Committee. https://www.fja.gc.ca/COVID-19/Gladue-approches-tenant-compte-des-traumatismes-Trauma-informed-Approaches-to-Gladue-Processes-eng.html
Ontario Justice Education Network. (2016, July 12). Restorative justice in the criminal context. https://ojen.ca/wp-content/uploads/Restorative-Justice_0.pdf OJEN+1
Public Safety Canada. (2023, March 9). Parliamentary Committee Notes: Overrepresentation (Indigenous Offenders). https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/trnsprnc/brfng-mtrls/prlmntry-bndrs/20230720/12-en.aspx
The Prison Policy Initiative. (2022, February 28). The impact of prison violence (Report). https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/violence.html
The Sentencing Project. (2021) The color of justice: Racial and ethnic disparity in state prisons. The Sentencing Project. https://www.sentencingproject.org/reports/the-color-of-justice-racial-and-ethnic-disparity-in-state-prisons-the-sentencing-project/
The Sentencing Project. (2024, February 14). How mandatory minimums perpetuate mass incarceration and what to do about it (Fact sheet). https://www.sentencingproject.org/fact-sheet/how-mandatory-minimums-perpetuate-mass-incarceration-and-what-to-do-about-it/
Tomlinson, K. D. (2016). An examination of deterrence theory: Where do we stand? Federal Probation, 80(3), 33–38. https://www.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/80_3_4_0.pdf
van der Kolk, B. A. (2014). The body keeps the score: Brain, mind, and body in the healing of trauma. Penguin Books
Wiesel, E., & Wiesel, M. (2006). Night (1st ed. of new translation.). Hill and Wang, a
division of Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Why Do Mental Health Issues and Care Make People Shy Away?
Why Do Mental Health Issues and Care Make People Shy Away?
I remember a civilian colleague of mine telling our Chief that she had PTSD, and she said his whole attitude toward her changed. She said it was within short order that she found management treating her differently, and before long, she was being encouraged to go out on retirement. At the time, I pondered why he would be so reactive. This was the softest-spoken person I had ever worked with; she never presented as threatening, unstable, or dangerous. So why would we be so ignorant toward a great colleague? What is it about mental health that makes people so hesitant? It’s not like you can catch PTSD, schizophrenia, or most other DSM-5-TR diagnoses. To be fair, there was a major study in Finland that showed that adolescents who associated with peers with mental illness had a higher risk of developing mental illness, particularly eating disorders and anxiety (Alho et al., 2024). However, if mental health disorders were contagious in the way we think of a contagion, then nearly all practicing therapists would be suffering from a host of conditions.
So, are people afraid of mental health issues because it’s an unknown, we don’t understand it and we are leery of what we don’t understand? Is that, I wondered, why we shy away from mental health care? I initially pursued a consideration of why do people in America shy away from mental health care, but I learned in my research that internationally, even in European countries, people don’t seek care when they need it (Mental Health Million Project, 2021). This entire idea made me wonder why, in this day and age, do we still have so much aversion to seeking help?
Mental Health Million Project conducted a survey of 10 countries, and their findings included:
Over 50% of those with clinical level mental health risks do not seek help. The major reasons are not knowing what kind of help to seek, thinking that it won’t make a difference, and a preference for self-help.
The researchers concluded that stigma was not the only defining issue. Therefore, stigma is not the only issue interfering with criminal justice professionals seeking help. It suggests that even if someone is willing to seek help, they may not know where to start.
Take for example, a colleague who has been exposed to a serious traumatic event at work. If I were to be in a supportive role, and they were willing to seek care, I would still need to help that individual identify a care provider who specializes in trauma treatment. So, I set out to find a therapist in our area who specializes in trauma care. Even in this day of the internet, here is what I found:
A counselor who says she takes contracts from the Veterans Administration. She has a friendly website, speaks about realizing the limited support for law enforcement after her nephew joined the San Jose (California) Police Department. She mentions she isn’t a liberal and is a certified range instructor. Already, my skepticism kicks in, and I am thinking, “she’s trying too hard.”
So the next question is, do I give her contact information to my colleague, do I try to vet her myself first…what the heck? So, in reality, I am stuck, and I am just trying to figure out how to help my colleague. I am not currently in a mental health crisis, I am not facing trauma or worried about my career if I seek help, none of that.
So after going through this exercise, I can see why people don’t know what type of help to seek, and to be skeptical about it working. I became skeptical about the therapist who wants me to believe she can hang with cops. No disrespect to her, I am just being candid about my own bias!
Therefore, we have layers of obstacles when seeking mental health care as a criminal justice professional. There is a hesitancy to admit the need for help, because there is stigma in the general population about mental health, and an added layer of stigma for those in law enforcement and any service field for that matter (i.e., corrections, social work, domestic violence shelters, health care, etc.). If one finds the courage to get past that and decide to seek help, where does one start? Look for a specific type of mental health professional? Then do they take insurance? Or does one go with an Employee Assistance Program referral? Then, does one follow through and call the mental health clinician? Show up and put all of the problems out to a stranger and hope they are able to understand the work and how to help?
I look at this way, we are having the conversations about how to effect change in the industry. How do we destigmatize seeking mental health care? Even on an international level, we have a long way to go. We have come a long way in the past 20 years, but certainly, there is a journey ahead.
By the way, I emailed the therapist who is a gun-toting, cussing, conservative who wants to work with law enforcement. In a brief email, I told her about how important this topic is to me, and that I am seeking to build my professional network as I am interested in pursuing long-term solutions in the industry. My first thought was, is she going to vet me before she even responds? Stay tuned…
References:
Alho, J., Gutvilig, M., Niemi, R., Komulainen, K., Böckerman, P., Webb, R. T., Elovainio, M., & Hakulinen, C. (2024). Transmission of Mental Disorders in Adolescent Peer Networks. JAMA Psychiatry (Chicago, Ill.), 81(9), 882–888. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2024.1126
Sapien Labs. (2021). Mental Health has Bigger Challenges Than Stigma. Mental Health Million Project. Retrieved from: https://mentalstateoftheworld.report/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/Rapid-Report-2021-Help-Seeking.pdf
EMDR for Children and Adults with PTSD
Eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (also known as EMDR) is used in therapeutic approaches to help people face their trauma by using an 8-step treatment plan. During an EMDR session, participants are instructed to complete bilateral stimulation, which is usually saccadic eye movements, which desensitizes the participant and relieves discomfort (Valiente-Gómez et al., 2017). By using EMDR techniques, the participant is able to reprocess their traumatic experiences and work through them. EMDR is beneficial for PTSD in adults, children, and teens due to the ability to work through their trauma in a controlled way. Within EMDR, there are 8 phases that are used during treatment. The 8 stages are history taking, preparation, assessment, desensitisation, installation, body scan, closure, and reevaluation (Rousseau, 2025). These stages are necessary for EMDR therapy because it helps the participant to take back their trauma and work through it.
When discussing the benefits of EMDR across all ages, it is important to understand how it can differ for each age group. Specifically, for children, EMDR can be beneficial because there is no at-home work for them to complete. EMDR is used only in professional sessions and cannot be done at home. This is beneficial for children because they will not feel that they do not want to do it because they have been practising at home, making the effects stronger. Not having the option for homework can influence children to want to do it more in a professional setting because they will not feel pressured to do it at home as well. EMDR is also important for adults because they can work through their past trauma in a new mindset. In one session, a participant noted that they “felt each and every step of it (their traumatic event) now. Now it is like a whole, instead of fragments, so it is more manageable” (van der Kolk, 2014, p.g. 370). By having EMDR, participants are able to relive their trauma in a controlled environment and respond in a different way.
When it comes to EMDR, I find it very compelling because of the ability that it has to help people live through their traumas. EMDR allows people to look at their trauma from a new perspective, allowing them to understand more deeply what happened and hopefully giving them the ability to move forward. Although EMDR has had successful results and has been shown to be effective, it is still debated on if it actually works (Rousseau, 2025). EMDR is a practice that is fairly new in comparison to other forms of treatment options. It has also been found that EMDR has been successful in the treatment of phobias like flight anxiety, but whether or not it's related to PTSD (Valiente-Gómez et al., 2017). This being said, it can be successful in treating phobias that could have been caused by trauma, like if someone survived a plane crash and they have a fear of flying now. In regards to EMDR specifically for children, it has been found to be effective when treating PTSD symptoms (Rodenburg, 2009). The reason why this could be is because children sometimes do not know how to express their emotions in the same manner as adults.
Overall, when it comes to EMDR practices, the treatment itself is still relatively new. Some claim that there are great successes that come from EMDR. It is hard for researchers to determine if it is a reliable practice because you can not really compare it to another therapeutic approach. EMDR can vary in success depending on the individual who is receiving the treatment. For some, it might not be as successful as other therapeutic approaches, but for others, it can be life-changing. Overall, EMDR is an approach that should be studied more deeply, allowing participants to be able to utilize it in the best way possible.
References
Rodenburg, R., Benjamin, A., de Roos, C., Meijer, A. M., & Jan Stams, G. (2009, January 3). Efficacy of EMDR in children: A meta-analysis - sciencedirect. Clinical Psychology Review. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0272735809000890
Rousseau, D. (2025). Module 6 Trauma And Criminal Justice System [Lesson 4.3]. Blackboard@BU.
Valiente-Gómez, A., Moreno-Alcázar, A., Treen, D., Cedrón, C., Colom, F., Amann, B. L., & Pérez, V. (2017, September 25). EMDR BEYOND PTSD: A systematic literature review. Frontiers. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01668/full
Van Der Kolk, B. A. (2014). The body keeps the score: Brain, mind, and body in the healing of trauma. Amazon Kindle.