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Mass Murder and it’s motivational typologies
Mass murder has been a highly sensitive topic for quite some time now. We have heard of many that have occurred over the years, however, the media never gives a full picture of the type of motivational typologies that take place when the suspect commits the crime. We hear about the suspect's past, their childhood, whether they have a mental illness that led them to commit the crime. However we rarely take a look at what is the motivation they carry to commit this horrific crime. In this post, you will learn about different types of motivation. To begin, Mass murder refers to the killing of four or more people, without a cooling off period, typically in a public place ( Rousseau, 2025).
Moving forward, there are many different typologies that correspond with Mass murder, however, what the media portrays, and what the literature/ text state, do not always sync. According to the book, there are five types of motivational typology that a mass murderer might fall under. Those five categories are: Revenge, Power, Loyalty, Profit, and Terror (Bartol & Bartol,2021). Although there are five categories of motivational typology, the most commonly used is revenge. To continue, we often only see media coverage on public mass killings, which often happen in schools, malls, and workplaces. However, this can also happen within the home. According to research, mass killings involving families have the highest number of ratings ( 48% = 218) ( Fox & Levin, 2022). As mentioned above, the most common motivational typology within these killings is conflict/revenge.
To conclude, there are a number of cases that illustrate different types of motivation for conducting the crime, revenge happens to be the number one cause for this sort of killing. That is because there might have been conflict with certain individuals within their circle, or outside their circle, which made them feel isolated. This might have been enough of a motive to want to commit the crime, in hopes that they gain the type of revenge they seek. However, they fail to realize the impact it has on the survivors, or the victims' families
Reference:
Bartol, A.M. & Bartol C.R. (2021). Criminal Behavior: A psychological Approach (12th ed.). Pearson.
Fox.J.A. & Levin.J. (2022). Mass Murder in America:Trends, Characteristics, Explanations,and Policy Response. Homicides Studies. 26(1), 3-117
https://doi-org.ezproxy.bu.edu/10.1177/10887679211043803
Rousseau (2025).Module 6: The Psychology of Hate and Fear MET CJ720: Forensic Behavior Analysis. Boston University..
The Complexity of Serial Killers
According to Criminal Behavior: A Psychological Approach, a serial murderer is defined as an individual who kills two or more victims in separate events. Emma Fridel and James Fox have broken serial killers into three groupings: “those who killed two victims, those who killed three to seven (whom the researchers termed the typical serial killers), and the deadliest killers who had eight or more victims” (Bartol, p. 343). Examples of well-known serial killers in our society include Gary Ridgway, Jack the Ripper, Jeffery Dahmer, and Ted Bundy, but there are often misconceptions in society, perpetuated by the media, that overtake the actuality of serial murderers.
In the podcast, Speaking of Psychology, Dr. Louis Schlesinger, a forensic psychologist, speaks about the complexity of the psychology of serial murderers. When asked the question of what drives someone to become a serial sexual killer, Dr. Schlesinger states that “the best understanding I think we have at this point is that it’s a biopsychosocial phenomenon with, in my view, a heavy emphasis on neurobiology…And in order for somebody to become a serial sexual murder, I believe many things have to go wrong” (Schlesinger, 2023). This emphasizes the notion that it is not just one factor that leads to individuals committing crimes, but instead, many influences play a role. The podcast proceeds and Schlesinger makes some interesting points that further the overall complexity of serial killers. Particularly stating the inaccuracy of killers in the media, “American people want their serial killers to be evil geniuses with IQs of 180 ... Nothing could be further from the truth” (Schlesinger, 2023). This is just one of the misconceptions Schlesinger points out, along with the role that mental illness plays. It is assumed that all serial killers are psychopaths or suffer from other severe mental illnesses, but that is not always the case. Most of the time in society, there tends to be blame placed on mental illness, something that then proves to be detrimental to those who are actively struggling with mental illness. Understanding the illusions that are put out in society about serial killers is necessary to analyze their psychology and comprehend the intricacy of their criminal behavior.
Bartol, Curt R.; Bartol, Anne M.. Criminal Behavior: A Psychological Approach. (Function). Kindle Edition.
Schlesinger, L. (Guest). (2023). Understanding the mind of a serial killer (No. [episode number]). In K. Mills (Host), Speaking of Psychology. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/news/podcasts/speaking-of-psychology/serial-killer-mind
The Rehabilitative Power of Crafting: A Look at Knitting Behind Bars
I started knitting in 2020, during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic. I had exhausted much of the Netflix streaming library and had not much else to do to occupy my time staying at home. One day, a package arrived in the mail; my mom had ordered me a knitting starter kit, consisting of a ball of yarn, needles, and an instructional book. I was hesitant at first, but boredom eventually pushed me to sit down on my couch and learn how to knit. I have knit almost every day since then, becoming like a form of meditation.
Many knitters who I know personally or with whom I have interacted online say that knitting is therapeutic. It’s what Lynn Zwerling, the founder of Knitting Behind Bars, calls “the Zen of knitting”.
Knitting Behind Bars is a crafting program that began in Maryland for incarcerated individuals where they can learn to knit and make items to give back to the community. For Zwerling, Knitting Behind Bars is not only a program that teaches a craft but one that teaches life and job skills like focus and anger management. The program, Zwerling states in an interview with the Washington Post, also provides an opportunity for inmates to socialize in a safe and supportive space, which is something that the prison environment typically lacks.
Knitting Behind Bars is particularly impactful in the ways it promotes healing among participants and helps others in the community who are experiencing trauma. One of the program’s first projects was for participants to knit and sew “comfort dolls” which were donated to Baltimore County’s domestic violence first responders to give to children they might encounter when answering a call. Zwerling states in an interview with NPR that this project had a particularly profound effect on inmates who had experienced domestic violence or abuse in the past. In a way, helping others navigate their trauma allowed inmates to recognize and address their own.
Now, inmates give most of their projects to children in need in the Baltimore area, fostering empathy among inmates for those in their communities. This practice of empathy is particularly important in the correctional setting, where a lack of empathy is often a major contributor to criminal behavior.
Looking at Knitting Behind Bars has made me realize that something as simple as knitting can have a profound impact in the criminal justice field. Knitting and other crafts can be used not only for individualized self-care but also as a tool for rehabilitation and healing. This sets the stage for the development of new, innovative programs in corrections and beyond.
References
Martin, M. (2012, January 9). Knitting Behind Bars, learning focus and patience. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2012/01/09/144904615/knitting-behind-bars-learning-focus-and-patience
Livingston, Michael II. (2014, April 25). At prison, a class that isn’t necessarily about knitting. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/2014/04/24/a814362a-ae0e-11e3-a49e-76adc9210f19_story.html
Trauma and the Dark Triad
Trauma and the Dark Triad
“A cluster of personality traits that are associated with criminal psychopathy. The cluster includes psychopathy, narcissism, and Machiavellianism” (Bartol et al., page 225). Like many other personality disorders, the traits of the ‘dark triad’ can be found rooted within traumatic experiences early in life. Each trait is a stand-alone characteristic describing aspects of the personality, and they work in combination with each other allowing the dark triad traits to further develop. What is the relationship of early life trauma as it relates to the dark triad traits?
John Bowlby, a British psychiatrist, provided the ‘attachment theory’ as part of the relationship between childhood trauma and the development of psychopathic traits. He theorized, through his “’maternal deprivation hypothesis’…that if a child’s attachment to a mother figure is broken, it damages their social, emotional, and intellectual development…Bowlby found that a lack of attachment resulted in what he called ‘affectionless psychopathy’, the inability to empathize with other people or to form meaningful relationships with them’” (psychologytoday.com). A second aspect in relating trauma to psychopathy in the dark triad, is a defense mechanism of becoming emotionally numb. In this, “some children respond to deprivation and trauma by ‘closing in’ on themselves and unconsciously disconnecting themselves from other people and from the world” (psychologytoday.com). Bond or other emotional connections are not made; what would be a protective factor has turned into a risk factor. Emotional underdevelopment and lack of emotional coping skills, contributed to the inability to show empathy, a characteristic of psychopathy.
The second personality trait within the dark triad is narcissism, which is also developed as a trauma response. Narcissism can be developed in early childhood as a response to parental neglect or inconsistent parenting. It is in these inadequate child-parent relationship, that can lead to the child not developing good self-esteem or self-worth. Without having positive and constant interactions with parents, the child is left to seeking validation from others. Part of the development of narcissistic traits is displayed by grandiosity and inflated sense of importance. Due to needing to seek validation, the characteristics observed can range from constant need for admiration, to be the center of attention, and a belief of superiority above all. The over glorification of self is the trauma response for feelings of inadequacy as a child. As narcissists grow through their childhood experiences while learning how to survive, the individual can become very skilled in manipulation, exploitation of others, and develop charisma to achieve what they want, no matter the price.
The third trait in the dark triad rooted in early trauma, is Machiavellianism. This trait is “characterized by focus on one’s own ambition and interests and adopting a utilitarian perspective in interactions with others…are prone to lying for personal gain and engaging in manipulative tactics to achieve success…tend to disregard ethical values” (files.eric.ed.gov). This trait is the culmination of childhood traumas mixed with the need to survive. As this type of behavior is reinforced through the life cycle of achieving positive outcomes, it becomes an effective way for the individual to further protect themselves. This trait, along with psychopathy and narcissism, is founded in a lack of emotional connections and relationships, in response to trauma early in life, without ever developing empathy or care for anyone but themselves.
Early life trauma is experienced differently for every individual; how one copes with this trauma is also different for everyone. With survival of these trauma paramount, individuals turn to themselves to develop the necessary tools to make it out of traumatic situations. While these three distinct personality traits can be recognized in every single person separately, not all use them in devious ways. It is the combination of these three traits working together that become the dark triad.
Resources:
https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/out-of-the-darkness/202404/the-roots-of-evil
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1394069.pdf
Bartol, C. R., & Bartol, A. M. (2021). Criminal behavior: a psychological approach (12th ed.). Pearson Education/Prentice Hall; Pearson.
Untouchable in Iraq Article – Effects of PTSD and Trauma
The article "Untouchable in Iraq. Ex-Sniper Dies in a Shooting Back Home" shines a light on how much individuals go through when they are deployed overseas. From training to real life experiences in areas someone has never dealt with before, weighs heavy on individuals and mental health sometimes goes unchecked or miss treated. The story of Chris Kyle was one that should of not happen, a war hero and decorated military individual comes home from experiencing the very same things the subject who killed him did, Chris was just trying to help those that needed that help. This situation as well as many others shine a light on the fact that we prepare these individuals for weeks, months on end to prepare for battle, but not for what they are going to witness, or be exposed to, and really not be able to handle it when they come back state side. We see this in other professions as well. It is nice to see many are putting mental health on the forefront of doing better, but I do not think we are nearly where we need to be on this topic and mass prescribing medications to people who need help is not the answer.
I think we need to have better treatment approaches as well as solutions to help these individuals who suffer from mental health that have been in traumatic experiences such as combat and law enforcement work. Providing more training and resources to help individuals who suffer from PTSD, from group therapy, to specialized therapies, but I would like to see less with the over medicating of individuals because the various medications that are out there may or may not treat the condition the person is going through, but also may cause additional health related concerns. We also see a lot of stigma and public perception when it comes to PTSD which makes it challenging for those who may be suffering from these types of conditions and may be afraid to come forward for the help they need because they do not want to be perceived as weak or one of the many other views.
Affording more assistance, and care for individuals suffering from PTSD as well as trauma could help prevent many of the mental health crisis we see today where they become so serve that individuals commit criminal behavior such as in the case of Chris Kyle. It could also help lower the suicide rate among individuals who suffer from these conditions.
Resources:
Fernandez, M., & Schwirtz, M. (2013, February 4). Untouchable in Iraq, Ex-Sniper Dies in a Shooting Back Home. New York Times, A1(L). https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A317393855/AONE?u=mlin_b_bumml&sid=bookmark-AONE&xid=83cac05c
Being Reactive is Not Working
It has become almost habitual to see a story about a mass murder or mass shooting in the news every week. So far, in 2025, there have been a total of 48 mass shootings (Mass Shooting Tracker, 2025). As of writing this on February 24, it has been two days since the last one. In our schools, we teach our children to hide and stay quiet. As adults, we have become so traumatized that we jump at the sound of a muffler popping or instinctually running away if we see others doing the same. Every time a new event occurs, the police apologize and say they did their best, and politicians offer their condolences and point their fingers. We create solutions after the problem has happened, but at that point, the damage is done. Instead of causing trauma and creating new victims, we need to encourage proactive solutions instead of putting a band-aid on the problem after somebody has been shot.
There are a few ideas that could be implemented that could prevent mass shootings from occurring. In our society, we are afraid of sharing information if we think it can hurt someone or ourselves. What we can begin to do is encourage people who witness concerning behaviors from people that they know to report it. Often, those who commit mass shootings display four to five concerning behaviors, such as leaking information about what they are going to do or expressing problematic behaviors (Silver, Simons, Craun, 2018). By destigmatizing the idea of going to law enforcement or similar entities to express concerning information, it could prevent more mass shootings from happening. Another idea is better training for law enforcement to identify concerning behaviors. Because of the way the media portrays mass shooters, people have created a profile or typology in their minds as to what a mass shooter looks like. This can cause law enforcement to become tunneled visioned, ignoring other information and behaviors. By improving training for law enforcement, they will be better prepared if there is a situation where there may be a credible threat.
As it stands, gun violence is the number one cause of death for children and teens in America (John Hopkins, 2024). The number of mass shootings has been steadily increasing every year, leading to more and more people dying or becoming victimized (Rockefeller Institute of Government). Current efforts are clearly not working, and by doing nothing, we are telling the families and survivors that their trauma and pain mean nothing. By becoming more proactive in our strategies, we can better anticipate and prevent mass shootings from occurring and thus prevent further generations from experiencing the trauma of living in a society where a mass shooting can happen at any time or place.
Johns Hopkins . (2024, September 12). Guns remain leading cause of death for children and teens. Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. https://publichealth.jhu.edu/2024/guns-remain-leading-cause-of-death-for-children-and-teens
Mass Shooting Tracker. (2025). Mass shooting tracker. https://massshootingtracker.site/
Rockefeller Institute of Government. (2023, September 18). Mass shooting factsheet. https://rockinst.org/gun-violence/mass-shooting-factsheet/
Silver, J., Simons, A., Craun, S. (2018, June). A Study of the Pre-Attack Behaviors of Active Shooters in the United States. FBI.
Book Review: “Know My Name: A Memoir” by Chanel Miller
“My name is Chanel. I am a victim, I have no qualms with this world, only with the idea that it is all that I am.” (Miller, 2019).
In January 2015, Chanel Miller was sexually assaulted behind a dumpster near a fraternity on Stanford University’s campus. Miller woke up in a hospital with no recollection of the event and was given little to no explanation of what had happened. It wasn’t until she came across a news headline stating that a man named Brock Turner had been caught sexually assaulting an unconscious, intoxicated woman. Miller began to piece together that she was the woman in the headline and discovered the details of her own sexual assault at the same time as the rest of the world.
Turner was initially charged with five felony counts: rape of an intoxicated person, rape of an unconscious person, sexual penetration by a foreign object of an unconscious woman, and assault with intent to commit rape (Miller, 2019). Had he been convicted on all counts, he would have faced a maximum prison sentence of 10 years and would have been required to register as a sex offender (Knowles, 2016). However, the five felony counts were reduced to three and Turner was sentenced to six months in county jail, serving only three months before his release.
During the trial, Miller was publicly known as “Emily Doe” to protect her identity. She wrote an impact statement in the sentencing phase of the trial, which was later published on BuzzFeed (with her permission) with her name replaced as “Emily Doe”. The 7,000-word statement immediately went viral and was viewed by fifteen million people within the span of a week (Liu, 2019). Miller’s statement led to changes in California state law resulting in more stringent sexual assault sentences and also contributed to the recall of Judge Aaron Persky from the bench (BBC, 2019).
“Writing is the way I process the world.” (Miller, 2019, p. 315). This poignant memoir explores trauma, healing, and resilience, as Miller reflects on the culture surrounding sexual assault and how the criminal justice system treats individuals who have experienced sexual assault. "If they explained what I was consenting to, it was lost on me. Papers and papers, all different colors, light purple, yellow, tangerine. No one explained why my underwear was gone, why my hands were bleeding, why my hair was dirty, why I was dressed in funny pants, but things seemed to be moving right along, and I figured if I kept signing and nodding, I would come out of this place cleaned up and set right again." (Miller, 2019, p. 9). Although the Sexual Assault Response Team (SART) kit is one of the most effective tools for convicting a perpetrator of rape, it can also be one of the most traumatizing experiences for survivors to endure (Rousseau, 2025).
In her memoir, Miller reclaims her identity and gives silenced voices recognition, “The saddest things about these cases, beyond the crimes themselves, are the degrading things the victim begins to believe about her being. My hope is to undo these beliefs. I say her, but whether you are a man, transgender, gender-nonconforming, however you choose to identify and exist in this world, if your life has been touched by sexual violence, I seek to protect you.” (Miller, 2019). I first read this memoir on November 6, 2021, and although I have only read it once, its impact will stay with me forever.
References:
BBC. (2019). Stanford Sexual Assault: Chanel Miller reveals her identity. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-49583310
Liu, R. (2019). Know My Name by Chanel Miller review – memoir of a sexual assault. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/sep/25/know-my-name-by-chanel-miller-review
Miller, C. (2019). Know my name: a memoir. [New York], Viking.
Knowles, H. (2016). Brock Turner found guilty on three felony counts. The Stanford Daily. https://stanforddaily.com/2016/03/30/brock-turner-found-guilty-on-three-felony-counts/
Rousseau, D. (2025). Module 5: Special Populations. Online Class. Boston University Metropolitan College. https://alt-5deff46c33361.blackboard.com/bbcswebdav/courses/25sprgmetcj725_o1/course/w5/metcj725_ALL_W5.html?one_hash=972FE4B49A4CDD2D8DC867520B1C2BA6&f_hash=DA6451E61222D56A8F5BFA4FED95064B
Breaking the silence: Liza Long’s Journey from Stigma to Advocacy
Breaking the Silence: Liza Long’s Journey from Stigma to Advocacy
On the morning of December 14, 2012, 20-year-old Adam Lanza shot and killed twenty children and six adult staff members at Sandy Hook Elementary School in Newtown, Connecticut, before taking his own life. Later that day, investigators found Adam Lanza’s first victim, his mother Nancy Lanza, whom he had shot four times prior to leaving for the school.
As the nation processed the tragedy, it came to light that, at different times, Adam had been diagnosed with anxiety, sensoryintegration disorder, autism spectrum disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and it was suspected that he had schizophrenia (ABC News, 2014; Breslow, 2013; Engel, 2014). It also became clear that, despite his parents’ multiple attempts to diagnose and treat his condition, they were unable to find the medications and support systems that would be effective.
An Anonymous Blogger
Meanwhile, in Boise, Idaho, a mother of four was going through a diagnosis and treatment ordeal with her 13-year-old son. Two days before the Sandy Hook shooting, her son – let’s call him Michael – had been placed in an acute mental hospital after a violent outburst that included yelling, punching, biting, and threats of suicide. In her anonymous blog, The Anarchist Soccer Mom, she opened up about Michael’s threatening behavior, the emotional toll it had taken on her and her other children, and the impossible choices that lay ahead (Long, 2012).
Titled “I Am Adam Lanza’s Mother,” the post described “years of missed diagnoses, ineffective medications, and costly therapies” (Long, 2015, p. 14), expressing the author’s greatest fear: that one day she would find herself in Nancy Lanza’s shoes. Initially shared on Facebook, the post received praise for its honesty, and soon a friend urged the blogger to publish the piece under her real name. “Until people start putting their names on these stories, they aren’t real,” he explained (Long, 2015, p. 15).
The Price of Speaking Up – and The Price of Silence
The blogger’s name was Liza Long, and her cry for help was heard and shared by millions of people, leaving many to wonder what happened next.
To start, Michael’s estranged father read the post to the boy overthe phone while he was still hospitalized. Then, the man used the essay as evidence to take away Long’s custody of their two younger children until Michael was institutionalized. Thusbegins Long’s book, The Price of Silence: A Mom’s Perspective on Mental Illness, published three years after these events.
The book is written for two primary audiences: those who have a family member with a mental illness and understand itscomplexities and challenges – and those who may not realize how pervasive mental illness is and whose first inclination mightbe to keep it quiet. “I hope you’ll look at that child acting out on the playground or in the classroom with different, more compassionate eyes,” the author explains (Long, 2015, p. 193).
One could argue that a third audience for this book was always Long herself. Written in a reflective, journal-like style, revisiting many events over and over again, the book appears to be a way for Long to process the preceding three years, organize her thoughts, and find strength by connecting with her readers.
Overcoming the Stigma and Searching for Answers
Throughout the book, the stigma of mental illness takes many forms: from self-stigma, which leads parents to blame themselves for their child’s illness, to social stigma, encounteredin stores, churches, and schools. Long (2015) argues that self-stigma is the hardest to overcome, as parents “are more than willing to blame themselves, and society at large is happy to reinforce that message” (p. 15). She realizes that her initial choice to blog anonymously was driven by self-stigma and that facing it and openly discussing mental illness was a necessary step toward finding effective treatment.
In the course of the book, Michael, much like Adam Lanza,cycles through multiple diagnoses: intermittent explosive disorder; oppositional defiant disorder; pervasive developmental disorder, not otherwise specified; Asperger’s syndrome, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Long (2015) observes that this “circuitous journey through the Wonderful World of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders […] is pretty typical for children with mental disorders” (p. 103). She applies all her skills as a scholar and her dedication as a mother to researching the science behind these disorders and the available treatment options. After consulting numerous specialists, she finally arrives at a definitive diagnosis for Michael – juvenile bipolar disorder – and confirms that lithium is effective in controlling it.
The Legacy of “I Am Adam Lanza’s Mother”
Just like the original essay, the book has led to even more unmasking. Following its release, the public learned that Michael’s real name was Eric and that, by then, he was considering his college options (Arnold-Ratliff, 2016). Long’s appearances on television, new publications, and congressional testimony have made her a well-known mental health advocate.
Using her authentic voice – and her real name – Long has helped make the experiences of families dealing with mental illness more relatable and, therefore, more real for millions of people. It is safe to say that Long will never be in Nancy Lanza’s position– and through her advocacy, she has helped many other families avoid feeling that way as well.
References
Arnold-Ratliff, K. (2016, September 18). Liza Long - “I Am Adam Lanza’s Mother” Essay. Oprah.com. https://www.oprah.com/inspiration/liza-long-i-am-adam-lanzas-mother-essay
Long, L. (2012, December 16). “I Am Adam Lanza’s Mother.”HuffPost. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/i-am-adam-lanzas-mother-mental-illness-conversation_n_2311009
Long, L. (2015). The Price of Silence: A Mom’s Perspective on Mental Illness. A Plume Book.
Montaldo, C. (2004, July 21). Mass Murderers, Spree and Serial Killers. ThoughtCo; ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/defining-mass-spree-and-serial-killers-973123
Rousseau, D. (2025). Lecture Notes from Module 6: The Psychology of Hate and Fear. In Retrieved from Blackboard. Boston University MET CJ-725.
The Intersection of Trauma, Psychology, and Sexual Offending: Implications for Criminal Justice
Human behavior is shaped by trauma, which impacts both mental health and criminal behavior. In forensic psychology research, trauma is frequently studied in victim contexts yet holds substantial significance for offender behavior, especially among psychopaths and sexual criminals. Understanding how trauma interplays with these criminal behaviors can help inform risk assessments, treatment approaches, and policy interventions within the criminal justice system (Smithwick, Lecture Notes: Module 4 lecture notes).
Exposure to early-life trauma, including physical abuse, sexual abuse, or neglect, may lead to the development of psychopathy and sexual offending behaviors, according to research findings (Van der Kolk, 2014). Research shows that many violent offenders experienced childhood maltreatment, according to Widom's study (1989). Additionally, system-induced trauma, such as that experienced in the juvenile justice system (Smithwick, Lecture Notes: Module 4), can exacerbate maladaptive behaviors. Popular culture misuses the term "psychopath," leading to offender stigmatization, which complicates rehabilitation efforts (Lecture Notes: Psychopathy and Group Projects). Trauma functions as a risk factor for criminal behavior, but it does not guarantee the development of psychopathy or sexual offending. The combination of trauma with genetic elements and environmental influences alongside neurobiological components determines the behavioral path of individuals (Gao et al., 2010).
Psychopathic individuals display characteristics such as an absence of empathy alongside superficial charm and manipulative behaviors. According to traditional views, psychopaths possess emotional detachment, which protects them from any trauma effects. New scientific studies dispute previous beliefs by demonstrating that psychopathic behaviors could actually originate from adverse reactions to childhood trauma (Porter, 1996). The case of Khalif Browder, who experienced severe system-induced trauma while detained at Rikers Jail, Lynn Smithwick, in the Lecture Notes for Module 4, illustrates how deeply their traumatic experiences can impact youth. The Psychopathy Checklist (PCLR) development by Dr. Robert Hare has made significant advances in our understanding of psychopathy as a disorder (Lecture Notes: Psychopathy and Group Projects). Primary psychopaths have natural emotional deficiencies that prevent any reaction to trauma (Kiehl, 2006), while secondary psychopaths demonstrate increased impulsivity and emotional instability related to traumatic childhood experiences (Skeem et al., 2007). Forensic and correctional settings require understanding this distinction because secondary psychopaths can benefit from trauma-based interventions, but primary psychopaths do not benefit from standard therapeutic methods.
Research by Seto & Lalumière (2010) shows that many sexual offenders endured traumatic events in their youth, including sexual or physical abuse. The abuse-to-offender cycle theory emerged from studies indicating that people who suffer sexual victimization during their lifetime could become future sexual offenders (Jespersen et al., 2009). In the case of Abby, a youth who experienced complex trauma from trafficking, Lynn Smithwick, in the Lecture Notes for Module 4, emphasizes how childhood trauma effects persist into adulthood and why trauma-informed care is essential. Using trauma-informed and person-centered language is essential to reduce stigma and deliver proper treatment to sexual violence offenders (Lecture Notes: Psychopathy and Group Projects). Criminal actions remain unjustifiable although their existence emphasizes the vital role of trauma-informed methods for prevention and rehabilitation efforts.
Correctional settings need to integrate trauma-informed care (TIC) because trauma significantly influences offending behavior. The principles of Trauma-Informed Care (TIC) include identifying past trauma in offenders and preventing re-traumatization during incarceration or therapeutic interventions while deploying evidence-based therapeutic practices such as Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR), and mindfulness-based treatments (Ford et al., 2013). However, treating offenders—particularly psychopathic individuals—poses unique challenges. The ineffectiveness of conventional rehabilitation approaches with psychopathic individuals prompts experts to consider behavioral management as a more appropriate treatment focus. Standard treatments have the potential to intensify psychopathic behaviors because these individuals naturally exhibit manipulation and deceit (Lecture Notes: Psychopathy and Group Projects). Targeting impulsivity and risk assessment through interventions could help reduce harmful behaviors according to Harris & Rice (2006).
Different demographics experience trauma and its effects in varying ways. According to Bryant-Davis (2019) racial identity combined with socioeconomic status and cultural background dictate both trauma exposure rates and mental health service availability. Research conducted on juvenile detention populations in Chicago and Cook County shows widespread trauma and mental health problems among inmates which requires better PTSD screening and specialized therapeutic interventions (Smithwick, Lecture Notes: Module 4). The success of interventions in criminal justice settings depends on cultural competency to effectively serve diverse populations. Providers require training to identify how different cultures respond to trauma and adjust treatment to match these responses.
To address trauma effectively in at-risk individuals we need a comprehensive multi-faceted approach. Schools and juvenile justice programs together with social services must launch early intervention programs to keep high-risk youth from becoming part of the criminal justice system (Felitti et al., 1998). Assessment approaches for sexual offenders and psychopathic individuals require trauma history integration to customize treatment recommendations (Andrews & Bonta, 2010). Prison rehabilitation programs should adopt trauma-informed care methods to address how trauma influences criminal behavior while continuing to enforce accountability (Miller & Najavits, 2012). High-risk offenders should receive trauma-focused mental health services through reentry programs as part of their post-release support to lower the chances of recidivism (Lösel & Schmucker, 2005).
Forensic psychology requires an understanding of trauma's connection to psychopathy and sexual offending to create more successful treatment methods. Although rehabilitation isn't possible for every offender, adopting a trauma-informed approach will lead to lower rates of recidivism and enhance criminal justice system outcomes. A comprehensive approach that addresses trauma at personal and institutional levels provides a compassionate and research-supported way to prevent crime and rehabilitate offenders.
References:
Andrews, D. A., & Bonta, J. (2010). The psychology of criminal conduct. Routledge.
Bryant-Davis, T. (2019). Thriving in the wake of trauma: A multicultural guide. Praeger.
Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., et al. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245-258.
Ford, J. D., Kerig, P. K., & Olafson, E. (2013). Treating traumatized children: Risk, resilience, and recovery. Routledge.
Gao, Y., Glenn, A. L., Schug, R. A., Yang, Y., & Raine, A. (2010). The neurobiology of psychopathy: A neurodevelopmental perspective. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 55(12), 813-823.
Harris, G. T., & Rice, M. E. (2006). Treatment of psychopathy: A review of empirical findings. Clinical Psychology Review, 26(7), 1027-1047.
Jespersen, A. F., Lalumière, M. L., & Seto, M. C. (2009). Sexual abuse history among adult sex offenders and non-sex offenders: A meta-analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33(3), 179-192.
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Lösel, F., & Schmucker, M. (2005). The effectiveness of treatment for sexual offenders: A comprehensive meta-analysis. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 1(1), 117-146.
Miller, N. A., & Najavits, L. M. (2012). Creating trauma-informed correctional care: A balance of goals and environment. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 3(1), 17246.
Porter, S. (1996). Without conscience or without active conscience? The etiology of psychopathy revisited. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 1(2), 179-189.
Seto, M. C., & Lalumière, M. L. (2010). What is so special about male adolescent sexual offending? A review and test of explanations through meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136(4), 526-575.
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Module 4 Notes. Boston University.
Lecture Notes: Psychopathy and Group Projects. Boston University.
Trauma and Forensic Evaluation
An article by Goldenson, Brodsky, and Perlin, discusses the role of trauma regarding the process of the forensic evaluation. The authors discuss the various roles in the process and how trauma can impact their experiences. They delve into the evaluators and their role, discussing the parameters of their processes to maintain a high ethical standard and the integrity of their work. In discussing the role of empathy, a substantial factor in the evaluation process, the authors state that, “Here, we hold that empathy and objectivity are not mutually exclusive, that conveying empathy is not just reserved for psychotherapy, and that experiencing empathy for the examinee is not inherently a form of deception or bias” (Goldenson et al., 2022, p. 229). They note the potential effectiveness of empathy as long as it is utilized properly and professionally. It allows for the examiner to build a better working relationship with the client and allows a more productive space for information to be given. The authors discuss the limitations of using empathy as well, stating that, “FMHEs are tasked, then, with striking a delicate balance between experiencing and conveying sufficient empathy while maintaining sufficient distance, restraint, and boundaries” (p. 230). This further reinforces the importance of boundaries in such a professional relationship, and how strenuous it can be for the evaluator to balance normal emotional responses with the neutrality required from evaluators.
Another point of discussion the authors touch on is the evaluators own experiences with trauma. As professionals in a field riddled with traumatic experiences, often dealing with their own traumatic experiences, the weight of such heavy topics can have a negative impact on evaluators. A solution to this issue that the authors mention is that, “The very human potential for emotional reactivity highlights the importance of a FMHE having self-awareness, insight, and resolution related to their own history of adversity or vicarious trauma in order to manage the tensions that arise in evaluating examinees with trauma histories” (p. 230). Dealing with that trauma, especially as a career, can be incredibly overwhelming, and the authors highlight the importance of reflection with evaluators so that they can adequately cope with the stressors. The reflection is also important to providing the best work for the individuals being evaluated. Being aware of one’s own trauma, and trauma information in general, also leads to more effective client interactions. This is highlighted when the authors mention that, “A trauma-informed approach does mean that the evaluator needs to attend carefully to the research on complex trauma and its potential influence on psychometric tests” (p. 231). Trauma can affect numerous aspects of the evaluation process, so it is imperative for key players to be aware of the ways trauma can manifest. The main concept of the article is effectively stated by the authors highlighting that, “Adopting trauma-informed practices not only may afford examinees dignity and respect, but also will likely improve the quality of forensic mental health assessment” (p. 234). Education and awareness of trauma is beneficial to every role in the criminal justice system as it can strengthen and improve the criminal justice process.
References
Goldenson, J., Brodsky, S. L., & Perlin, M. L. (2022). Trauma-informed forensic mental health assessment: Practical implications, ethical tensions, and alignment with therapeutic jurisprudence principles. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 28(2), 226-239. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000339