The Impact of Mass Shootings on Survivors
Since August 1966, a total of 1,312 people have been killed in 187 mass shootings in the United States (Berkowitz & Alcantara, 2021). Those murdered came from nearly every race, age, religion, and socioeconomic background. However, thousands more have been injured – both physically and psychologically. Research suggests that most survivors of mass shootings show resilience, but others experience ongoing mental health problems, including post-traumatic stress, depression, anxiety, and substance abuse (Novotney, 2018). Psychologists have identified three phases of response experienced by survivors and witnesses and offer up strategies for immediate and long-term interventions. Public health, behavioral health, and emergency management professionals can use this evidence to improve their disaster behavioral preparedness plans and recovery from mass violence.
Bartol and Bartol (2021) define mass murder as “the killing [of] four or more persons at a single location with no cooling-off period between murders.” Although relatively rare, mass murders have increased in the United States over the past three decades, a reality commonly attributed to the widespread availability of guns. Following mass shootings, survivors or witnesses may go through phases where certain emotions, behaviors, and other reactions are relatively standard. According to SAMHSA (2017), these three stages of shock and healing are:
- Acute phase – characterized by denial, shock, and disbelief
- Intermediate phase – characterized by fear, anger, anxiety, transient panic, retaliatory attacks, difficulty paying attention at work or school, depressed feelings, and disturbed sleep
- Long-term phase – characterized by coming to terms with realities with alternating periods of adjustment and relapse
In the acute phase, it is most helpful to provide survivors with resources, information, debriefing, and social support. Connection over isolation has been supported by research as extremely beneficial immediately following mass shootings (Novotney, 2018). During the intermediate phase, psychologists can train the community about the importance of trauma-informed care in order to help survivors rebuild a sense of control as well as improving physical, psychological, and emotional health. If untreated by the long-term phase, behavioral health reactions (flashbacks, anxiety, self-medicating) can become mental health or substance abuse disorders that require more specialized care.
When determining which mass shooting survivors and witnesses will need long-term help, researchers point to their proximity to the incident. A meta-analysis examining post-traumatic stress symptoms discovered that those who were most directly exposed to the shooting (physically injured, saw someone else get shot, lost a friend or loved one), as well as those who perceived that their own lives were in danger, are at much greater risk for long-term mental health consequences than survivors who may have been hiding or farther from the shooting (Novotney, 2018). Prior trauma exposure and pre-existing mental health symptoms also predispose vulnerable survivors to post-traumatic stress.
Survivors’ long-term health and wellness are dependent on having strong social support systems – there is an innate human need to feel connected to their communities in the aftermath of a mass shooting. Memorial events, such as candlelight vigils, play an important role in community recovery. Continued education in schools, faith-based organizations, and recreation centers help survivors learn skills to manage their distress and enhance social connections. As Novotney (2018) so eloquently phrased it, “bringing people together to promote connections and collective healing after a tragedy is often what strengthens families and communities the most.” Survivors and witnesses of mass shootings need to know they are not alone in their pain and suffering, and that social support is crucial to coming to terms with the tragic event and reconstructing their lives.
References:
Bartol, C., & Bartol, A. (2021). Criminal behavior: A psychological approach (12th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Berkowitz, B., & Alcantara, C. (2021, April 20). The terrible numbers that grow with each mass shooting. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com
Novotney, A. (2018, September). What happens to the survivors? Monitor on Psychology, 49(8). http://www.apa.org/monitor/2018/09/survivors
SAMHSA. (2017, September). Disaster technical assistance center supplemental research bulletin: Mass violence and behavioral health. Retrieved from https://www.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/dtac/srb-mass-violence-behavioral-health.pdf