Consciousness Research

Perception, Memory, Simulation, and Consciousness: A Convergence of Theories

Budson, A.E., Hogendoorn, H., & Addis, D.R. (2026)

→We suggest that consciousness is the explicit memory of past events or the general cognitive capacity to simulate events, whether used to consciously remember the past, experience the present, or imagine the future. By combining our three theories, our synthesis can shed light on conscious perceptions, decisions, and actions in timescales ranging from subsecond to seconds, minutes, days, months, and years. Perception, Memory, Simulation, and Consciousness: A Convergence of Theories

Evaluating Alzheimer’s disease with the TMS-EEG perturbation complexity index

Hagan, B., Buss, S.S., Fried, P.J., Shafi, M.M., Turk, K.M., Xie, K.Y., Frank, B., Passera, B., Ozdemir, R.A., & Budson, A.E. (2026)

→We speculate that cortical dementias involve alterations in cortical complexity that may relate to deterioration of their conscious processes. Evaluating Alzheimer’s disease with the TMS-EEG perturbation complexity index

Mindfulness Training Improves Attention in Veterans with MCI and Mild Dementia: A Pilot Study

Desmond, G., Kamaraj, H., Yilmaz, Y., Hagan, B., Xie, K., Turk, K. (2025)

→Mindfulness—defined as focused, nonjudgmental awareness of the present moment—has been shown to improve attention and induce neuroplastic changes in healthy older adults. This pilot study examined whether a 10-week mindfulness intervention could improve attention in individuals with MCI. Mindfulness Training Improves Attention in Veterans with MCI and Mild Dementia: A Pilot Study

Frontal Disorders and Consciousness: A Review

Berenbaum, J.G., Morrison, B., Hagan, B., Xie, K.Y., Turk, K.W., & Budson, A.E. (2025)

→We argue that frontal disorders do not abolish consciousness but they may disrupt conscious abilities such as sustained attention, working memory, problem-solving, complex thought, executive function, response inhibition, decision-making, and goal-oriented behavior. Frontal Disorders and Consciousness: A Review

Memory, Sleep, Dreams, and Consciousness: A Perspective Based on the Memory Theory of Consciousness

Budson, A. E., & Paller, K. A. (2025)

→In keeping with the MToC, we emphasize that conscious experiences, both while awake and while dreaming, are not read-outs of external reality even though they are typically experienced as such. Sensory experiences seem direct and instantaneous, but they are indirect and delayed because they require sensory processing to reach the explicit-memory system. Memory, Sleep, Dreams, and Consciousness: A Perspective Based on the Memory Theory of Consciousness

The Use of Event Related Potentials to Predict Amyloid PET Status Among Patients from a Memory Disorders Clinic

Marin, A., Turk, K.W, Schiloski, K., Vives-Rodriguez, A., Suh, C., Uppal, P., Dwyer, B., Palumbo, R., & Budson, A.E. (2024)

→We investigated whether ERPs, along with neuropsychological data, serve as predictors of amyloid PET status in patients with memory complaints. The Use of Event Related Potentials to Predict Amyloid PET Status Among Patients from a Memory Disorders Clinic

Recent advances in understanding Alzheimer’s Disease: diagnosis and management strategies

Marin, A., & Budson, A.E (2023)

→We evaluate the development of non-pharmacological strategies to help sustain cognitive function and quality of life. Recent advances in understanding Alzheimer’s Disease: diagnosis and management strategies

Event-related Potentials Corresponding to Decision-making Under Uncertain Conditions

Farrer, D.C., Killiany, R.J., Moss, M.B., Fink, B., & Budson, A.E. (2023)

→Describes EEG event-related potentials (ERPs) correlating with decision-making under uncertain conditions when compared with certain conditions. Event-related Potentials Corresponding to Decision-making Under Uncertain Conditions

The Current of Consciousness: Neural Correlates and Clinical Aspects

Friedman, G., Turk, K.W. & Budson, A.E. (2023)

→Although the complete neurobiological basis of consciousness remains a mystery, recent advances have improved our understanding of the physiology underlying level of consciousness and phenomenal consciousness. The Current of Consciousness: Neural Correlates and Clinical Aspects

Commentary on “Consciousness as a Memory System” by Budson, Richman, and Kensinger (2022)

Kirshner, H.S. (2023)

→There is empirical evidence that rapid decisions and responses occur before they become conscious. However, Budson and colleagues (2022) extend the concept of unconscious decision-making to virtually all actions; in so doing, not only do they minimize the phenomenon of self-conscious awareness, but their theory has disturbing ethical implications for personal responsibility, criminal law, free will, and personality. Commentary on “Consciousness as a Memory System” by Budson, Richman, and Kensinger

Consciousness, Memory, and the Human Self: Commentary on “Consciousness as a Memory System” by Budson et al (2022)

Dafni-Merom, A., & Arzy, S. (2023)

→A complementary approach of studying the relationships between consciousness and memory through the concept of the human self and its protracted representation through time (so-called mental time travel) is suggested. Budson and colleagues’ (2022) neuroanatomical explanation to their theory is elaborated on and it is suggested that adding the concepts of brain networks and cortical gradients may contribute to their theory’s interpretability. Consciousness, Memory, and the Human Self: Commentary on “Consciousness as a Memory System” by Budson et al (2022)

Blurred Lines: Memory, Perceptions, and Consciousness: Commentary on “Consciousness as a Memory System” by Budson et al (2022)

Hogendoorn, H. (2023)

→In addition to providing a possible evolutionary trajectory for consciousness, the author believes that viewing consciousness as an extension of memory in this way is particularly useful for understanding some of the puzzling temporal complexities that are inherent to consciousness. For example, due to neural transmission delays, our conscious experience must necessarily lag the outside world, which creates a paradox for both conscious perception and action. These paradoxes can be elegantly solved by treating consciousness as a memory system. Blurred Lines: Memory, Perceptions, and Consciousness: Commentary on “Consciousness as a Memory System” by Budson et al (2022)

Why We Forget and how to Remember Better: The Science Behind Memory

Budson, A.E., & Kensinger, E. A. (2023)

→Memory is not a single system but a collection of processes shaped by attention, emotion, sleep, and retrieval. Understanding these processes can help us remember more effectively and avoid common memory errors. Why We Forget and how to Remember Better: The Science Behind Memory

Consciousness as a Memory System

Budson, A.E., Richman, K. A. & Kensinger, E. A. (2022)

→We suggest that there is confusion between why consciousness developed and what additional functions, through continued evolution, it has co-opted. We argue that consciousness originally developed as part of the episodic memory system—quite likely the part needed to accomplish that flexible recombining of information. Consciousness as a Memory System

Distinguishing Between Genuine and Feigned Dementia Using Event-related Potentials

Price, A.M., Palumbo, R., Marin, A., Uppal, P., Suh, C., Budson, A.E., & Turk, K.W. (2022)

→Evaluating the utility of an auditory oddball task in conjunction with the P3b peak amplitude to distinguish probable AD from simulated dementia. Distinguishing Between Genuine and Feigned Dementia Using Event-related Potentials

Effect of self-imagination on memory for older adults and aMCI patients

Zhang, W., Budson, A. E., & Gutchess, A. (2021).

→Self-imagination shows a mnemonic advantage over the control strategy, though this pattern emerged more clearly for healthy older adults. Furthermore, suggestive evidence indicates that cognitive ability supports self-reference benefits for healthy older adults, but not aMCI patients. Effect of self-imagination on memory for older adults and aMCI patients

The Effectiveness of Item-Specific Encoding and Conservative Responding to Reduce False Memories in Patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment and Mild Alzheimer’s Disease Dementia

Malone, C., Turk, K.W., Palumbo, R., & Budson, A.E. (2020)

→In the present study, we examined the effectiveness of conservative responding and item-specific deep encoding strategies, alone and in combination, to reduce false memory in a categorized word list paradigm among participants with mild Alzheimer’s disease dementia (AD), amnestic single-domain mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and healthy age-matched older controls (OCs). The Effectiveness of Item-Specific Encoding and Conservative Responding to Reduce False Memories in Patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment and Mild Alzheimer’s Disease Dementia

False Memories: The Other Side of Forgetting

Turk, K.W., Palumbo, R., Deason, R.G., Marin, A., Elshaar, A., Gosselin, E., O’Connor, M.K., Tripodis, Y., & Budson, A.E. (2020)

→Measured caregivers’ and clinicians’ perception of false memories in the lives of patients with memory loss due to Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and mild cognitive impairment (MCI) using a novel false memories questionnaire. Our hypotheses were that false memories are occurring as often as forgetting according to clinicians and family members. False Memories: The Other Side of Forgetting

Influence of self-referential mode on memory for aMCI patients

Zhang, W., Johndro, H., Budson, A.E., & Gutchess, A. (2020)

→In this study, we attempted to induce long-lasting self-reference effects through an autobiographical mode in younger and older adults, as well as patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI), predicting that a self-referential mode of thought would benefit memory. Influence of self-referential mode on memory for aMCI patients

Episodic simulation of future events is impaired in mild Alzheimer’s disease

Addis, D.R., Sacchetti, D.C., Ally, B.A., Budson, A.E., & Schacter, D.L. (2009)

→AD patients exhibited deficits in both remembering past events and simulating future events, generating fewer internal and external episodic details than healthy older controls. The internal and external detail scores were strongly correlated across past and future events, providing further evidence of the close linkages between the mental representations of past and future. Episodic simulation of future events is impaired in mild Alzheimer’s disease

Parietal contributions to recollection: Electrophysiological evidence from aging and patients with parietal lesions

Ally, B.A., Simons, J.S., McKeever, J.D., Peers, P.V., & Budson, A.E. (2008)

→Behavioral and ERP data from parietal lesion patients are presented and discussed. From these results, the authors speculate that the parietal old/new effect may be the neural correlate of an individual’s subjective recollective experience. Parietal contributions to recollection: Electrophysiological evidence from aging and patients with parietal lesions

Memory and Consciousness-Usually in Tandem but Sometimes Apart

Madan, C.R. (2023)

→Three propositions proposed about the relationship between episodic memory and consciousness: (1) Episodic memory is usually associated with conscious retrieval; (2) it is possible to have consciousness without episodic memory; and (3) episodic memory can be accessed without conscious retrieval. Memory and Consciousness-Usually in Tandem but Sometimes Apart