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EMDR: Make Healing an Art

Healing comes in many shapes and forms, so why not make it an art form? EMDR, or “eye movement desensitization and reprocessing,” is a form of psychotherapy where a therapist utilizes eye movement to guide patients through processing past, traumatic memories (American Psychological Association, 2023). The treatment is structured into phases, each phase broken up into a series of sessions, all done until a patients’ symptoms have been resolved (American Psychological Association, 2023). These phases include taking a history, though van der Kolk (2014) has found that taking a history is not always necessary for the EMDR process, explaining to the patient what will be occurring prior to treatment, activating a troubling memory that needs to be reprocessed, desensitizing that memory, using “bilateral stimulation” (eye movement) to guide the patient to a new way of thinking about the traumatic memory, and then bringing the session to a close in a safe and orderly way whilst making sure to re-assess the patient as they continue to progress throughout their treatment (American Psychological Association, 2023). EMDR is a process that is unique for every patient, and can evoke strong, emotional reactions, making some feel extremely distressed, emotional, and uncomfortable in some cases (American Psychological Association, 2023). But it is important to remember that EMDR is meant to evoke these emotions in order to help patients to rework their ways of thinking about the trauma that they endured.

You might ask, though, what makes EMDR art? Yes, EMDR can be quite clinical in nature, and there can be many words and research on the therapy thrown at you like “bilateral eye movement,” “psychotherapy,” and, as research has found, in one study it was found that twelve patients had a “…sharp increase in prefrontal lobe activation after treatment, as well as much more activity in the anterior cingulate and the basal ganglia” (American Psychological Association, 2023; van der Kolk, 2014). This is all incredible research and vital information, and researchers and clinicians can do so much with it, but it is not something that can easily be explained and campaigned with for patients trying to decide whether EMDR is right for them. Simply put, instead, it can be stated that EMDR is art in the form of memories.

Memories are art because they are what makes us who we are, the good and the bad. EMDR helps to loosen something up throughout its, typically, short process within our minds so that traumatic memories and experiences can be rapidly accessed and can be placed into larger perspectives, helping patients to experience them in a new way (van der Kolk, 2014). Trauma is called “trauma” for a reason, and it is not just a word to describe an experience, but it is also a word that can be used to describe the feelings and trauma responses those experiences directly invoke (van der Kolk, 2014). When we talk about these traumatic memories paired with the way EMDR works, it is vital to remember that EMDR empowers us to better learn to feel our emotions so that we can get them under control so our brain can rework itself to, eventually, “…let them [our trauma] go so that life gets lighter, so that our inside environment does not affect our outside environment, and so that our outside environment does not affect our inside environment” (Lopes, 2023).

It is a powerful reminder from TED Talk speaker Ginay Lopes that “…you are your healer” (Lopes, 2023). EMDR, simply, is the guide. One must look at one’s own experiences and know that they are in the past and that you are doing the best you can with what you know, and did know, and working hard on your healing journey to grow stronger, know better, be more empathetic towards yourself, and to find a place for forgiveness for yourself and maybe even for others (Lopes, 2023).

“There is nothing that we go through that we can’t make beautiful… [and] although art expresses healing, the healing was the art all along” (Lopes, 2023). Love your trauma, thank it for coming, but tell it that it cannot stay to harm you anymore, because you are your own healer, and you deserve to be healed.

References:

American Psychological Association. (2023, November 20). What is EMDR therapy and why is it used

           to treat PTSD? Apa.org. https://www.apa.org/topics/psychotherapy/emdr-therapy-ptsd

Lopes, G. (2023). The Art of Healing. Uri.edu; TEDxURI. https://www.uri.edu/tedx/talks/the-art-of-healing/

van der Kolk, B. (2014). The Body Keeps the Score: Brain, Mind, and Body in the

             Healing of Trauma. Penguin Books. https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781101608302

Silent Wounds: Trauma and the Nonverbal Healing Practice’s After the Holocaust

The topic of trauma is often deeply misunderstood as the notion that it only exists in memory of where distress only resides in someone’s mind. While the readings of this course ranging from Bessel van der Kolk’s the Body Keeps the Score to deeply disturbing literary accounts of Christopher Browning’s Ordinary Men and Elie Wiesel’s Night challenges this misconception. Throughout our course we understand that trauma becomes embedded deep in someone’s body and their state of mind. While across this text trauma can emerge such as an overwhelming force that can change someone’s behavior, identity, and how they perceive the world around them. The more we understand trauma the more we see that that trauma is not only a moment in time but it is an ongoing battle that influences how people move throughout life.

Bessel Van der Kolk, states how trauma is an “imprint left by that experience on mind, brain, and body. This imprint has ongoing consequences for how the human organism manages to survive in the present. Trauma results in a fundamental reorganization of the way mind and brain manage perceptions.” (Van Der Kolk, 2014) While the body can become constantly struggling in a state of survival, it can display itself through physical sensations such as muscle tension, random hostile outburst triggering thoughts or actions, a constant sense of being frozen or stuck, and hyper vigilance in a state of constant worrying. This can be displayed through the stories of main characters in Night and Ordinary Men. While Wiesel in the book Night does not simply describe fear, he describes the physical breakdown of the body that was seen around him, shaking hands, a sense of speechlessness, emotional numbness and weeping. These are open signs of the mind being dysregulated and the nervous system becoming overwhelmed more than beyond its natural capacity.  While trauma takes away from someone’s sense of safety it also takes away the ability to feel and properly express oneself fully. In comparison to Ordinary Men by Christopher Browning, members of the reserved police force during the occupation of Jozefow, Poland showed severe visible signs of trauma while carrying out orders of mass killings. Many officers vomit, shake, cry, or grew to be emotionally numb during this event. One account from the soldiers stated that it was “no longer possible for me to aim accurately. I suddenly nauseously and ran away from the shooting site.” (Browning, 1992) Shortly after the solider “ran into the woods vomited and sat down against a tree” (Browning, 1992) where he called out to his fellow soldiers to let him be alone, he later remained there for a couple hours. With several examples of soldiers acting in this behavior it challenges and complicates the understanding of perpetrators as purely sadistic or inherently violent. While the Browning highlights that many of these officers were as psychologically unprepared and physically not capable of carrying out superior orders as any average person placed into that position. In addition, some officers were forced into committing these actions that were in direct conflict with their moral and social values. This shows that trauma can come from a product of moral injury by combatting oneself’ s ethical and moral compass.  However, this does not excuse or sympathize with their horrific actions but urges that trauma can not only enter from victimization but also can happen from perpetration.

The topic of trauma can be discussed and thought out on many different arrays of topics but what lies center of the topic is how can we treat it? While traditional talk therapy assumes that healing can occur through different sessions of verbal expression with a traditional therapist. Bessel Van der Kolk questions this idea, “nobody can ‘treat’ a war or abuse, molestation, or any other horrendous event.” (Van Der Kolk, 2014) so how do we expect patients to describe the events that they witness? How can you put life altering events in words? When Van der Kolk came into this line of questioning, he highlighted emphasis on that “trauma by nature drives us to the edge of comprehension, cutting us off from language based on common experience or an imaginable past.” (Van Der Kolk, 2014)  If trauma can overwhelm the body then treatment and other healing practices must happen to the body as well. This ideology highlights how trauma impacted non-verbal services can be so important. A therapeutic design that is approached to reestablishing a sense of overall self-agency and safety through different mindful movements.  

While through the stories like Night and Ordinary Men we understand that people who were impacted by the holocaust represent a unique population with profound lifelong consequences of extreme trauma. Impacted individuals may face sever struggling issues like PTSD, depression, or difficulties that affect regulation and trust. The question is how can individuals who have seen humanity at one of its darkest times be treated? A treatment that aligns with this mind and body ideology is trauma informed yoga and art therapy. Psychologists such as Bessel Van der Kolk have found that yoga can be a great way to help reduce PTSD. In study that was conducted by Van der Kolk during a 10-week period he found that a “yoga program compared with supportive therapy can significantly reduce PTSD.” (Van Der Kolk et al., 2014) While focusing on an older generation that endured a lifelong battle with deeply embedded trauma. Jewish Family Services of Central New Jersey implemented a trauma informed chair yoga program for Holocaust Survivors and their caregivers. The article highlights 16 survivors of the Holocaust and over 50 caregivers, throughout classes survivors were taught breathing meditation exercises and simple poses that provide both physical and mental benefits. While many participants faced many lifelong issues of PTSD and reporting they only manage to average 3 hours of sleep due to chronic symptoms of hyper arousal. Several Individuals reported after being introduced to this type of care that their body can enter a much more relaxed state and sleep because of this. Another patient named “Boris is a survivor from the soviet union at 91 years old he identifies as experiencing both social isolation and pervasive poverty. In home yoga therapy has been a way for him to decrease social isolation, and experience practical tips for managing his anxiety when it comes to paying bills.” (Kavod, 2020a) In addition to several reports of anxiety being decreased, a sense of empowerment and stress relief for caregivers were made due to this mind and body style of treatment. Authors of this article concluded that mind and body interventions such a trauma informed chair yoga are significantly promising and a person-centered approach for helping Holocaust Survivors. Another article that displays another holistic non-verbal trauma informed practice is Resilience Through Art: Art Therapy with Holocaust Survivors From the Former Soviet Union by Mariya Keselman. This article explores how art therapy supports trauma recovery and resilience. Art therapy is defined as “an integrative mental health and human services profession that enriches the lives of individuals, families, and communities through active art-making, creative process, applied psychological theory, and human experience within a psychotherapeutic relationship.” (Kavod, 2020b) This encourages participants to engage in the creative practice of expression to access unconscious material and integrate emotional experiences all while communicating beyond the limits of verbal language. This style of treatment is found to be especially effective against trauma because it helps crack the traumatic memories that are often nonverbal and deeply embedded inside the body.  While also art therapy is found to have a common connection with other practices such as EMDR, it provides a way for processing trauma that “allows for bilateral stimulation of the brain” (Kavod, 2020b) through integrative and symbolic means. While initially program directors received some kickback from participants not wanting to engage with art therapy at first due to the old school thought of cultural stigma and perfectionistic tendencies that are formed under oppressive regimes. “study with groups of older adults, including Holocaust Survivors, suggests that engagement in art increases resilience and allows for “more positive coping with long-term effect of the Holocaust” (Kavod, 2020b) While the central project that this intervention highlights is personal digital family albums that participants created. This allowed individuals to reflect on their life stories, process grief trauma and memories, reconnect with family, and create a legacy for future generations. In addition, this allowed them to express their experiences through a visual sense instead using simple talking strategies. While case studies were conducted amongst the participants, during this practice researchers reported that survivors opened up emotionally and processed painful memories and most important recognized their own resilience.

Looking at the bigger picture, integrating these practices into effective trauma-based therapy takes time for people that spend a life span of carrying these burdens. Across all the stories from individuals that bear witness to everlasting atrocities, one theme stands out, trauma isolates. It can strip away one’s sense of safety, identity, and the willfulness to connect to others. Understanding trauma as both an attack to body and mind not only can help deepen our empathy as a society but also provides paths for further expansion of healing. While many trauma can provide an invisible wound to someone that cannot be expressed with words these strategies provide a safe alternative that can welcome healing into someone’s mind and body.

References

Browning, C. R. (1992). Ordinary men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland. Harper Perennial.

Van Der Kolk, B. (2014). The body keeps the score : Brain, mind, and body in the healing of trauma by bessel van der kolk, MD | key takeaways, analysis & review. Idreambooks Inc.

Wiesel, E. (2006). Night. Hill and Wang, a Division of Farrar, Straus and Giroux. (Original work published 1958)

Van Der Kolk, B., Stone, L., West, J., Rhodes, A., Emerson, D., Suvak, M., & Spinazzola, J.      (2014). Original Research Yoga as an Adjunctive Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Trial. J Clin Psychiatry, 75(6). https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.13m08561) 

Kavod. (2020, January 30). Person-Centered Trauma-Informed Yoga Therapy with Holocaust Survivors and their Family Caregivers - Kavod. Kavod. https://kavod.claimscon.org/2020/01/person-centered-trauma-informed-yoga-therapy-with-holocaust-survivors-and-their-family-caregivers/

Kavod. (2020b, January 30). Resilience through Art: Art Therapy with Holocaust Survivors from the Former Soviet Union. Kavod. https://kavod.claimscon.org/2020/01/resilience-through-art-art-therapy-with-holocaust-survivors-from-the-former-soviet-union/

Trauma Behind the Screen: The Hidden Effects of Secondhand Exposure in Criminal Intelligence Work

Healing The Past: EMDR Therapy

EMDR stands for Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing and it is utilized as a tool in psychotherapy. It was discovered and developed by psychologist Francine Shapiro(Young 2021) and specifically designed to help people heal from the symptoms and emotional distress from severe trauma. For decades, it has been regarded as a highly effective and evidence-based treatment and particularly useful to help treat anxiety and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Unlike traditional talk therapy which focuses on changing thoughts and behaviors, EMDR therapy addresses the underlying neurological impact of trauma. 

The core theory behind EMDR is that when a traumatic event occurs, it is improperly stored in the brain; it gets “stuck”. Instead of being stored away as a past event like it should be, the memory remains highly charged. The memory retains all of the original intense emotions and physical sensations which explains why a smell or a phrase triggers such extreme reactions; the saying “it felt like yesterday” rings true for memories like this. This being said, how does EMDR work? EMDR is unique in that it utilizes “bilateral stimulation” through auditory, tactile, or visual stimuli perceived in a back-and-forth tempo(Young 2021). This bilateral stimulation overrides the brain’s central workings of only using one hemisphere at a time. While we know how EMDR works, there are no solid findings on why it works although there are theories surrounding the question.(Rousseau 2025) One of the more popular theories is that back-and-forth stimuli mimics the brain’s natural activity during REM sleep, the time during which the brain undergoes processing and consolidation of memories.

 It is important to note that as a result of this processing, the memory is not erased but rather transformed. The rhythmic stimulation allows the memory to reprocess itself and strips away the distressing emotions and physical charge associated with the memory. Where a memory once caused visceral fear or intense panic, it now elicits a neutral reaction because the memory is now simply a fact of the past and clients often report feeling a profound shift when recalling the memory. More importantly, through the use of EMDR, individuals are able to shift core self-beliefs; for example, a client may take the phrase “I am not good enough” and shift it into “I am enough.” 

Overall, EMDR therapy is highly effective in the reprocessing of severe traumatic memories and is highly regarded in the path towards healing. EMDR is recognized globally as a leading treatment for PTSD and other conditions rooted in adverse life experiences. By activating the brain’s own restorative process, EMDR empowers individuals to integrate their difficult history and fundamentally shift how they see themselves. This turns a painful memory into nothing more than simple knowledge. 

Rousseau, D. (2025). Module 4: Pathways to Recovery: Understanding Approaches to Trauma Treatment. Lesson 4.3: Treatment Approaches. EMDR. Boston University, MET CJ 720: Trauma and Crisis Intervention.

Young, K. A. (2021). Trauma and resilience : Your questions answered. Bloomsbury Publishing USA.

Interpretation is Everything: How Diagnoses Change Behavioral Meaning

In everyday life, we rely heavily on nonverbal communication to gather information. A person pacing could be interpreted as stressed or impatient, unless that person is known to have a mental illness. Then as Sedgwick argues, we have a propensity “…to attach complex social meanings to acts and behaviors that…would be interpreted in the light of quite different concepts” (1972, p.206). Put another way, the behavior may not change, but the interpretive frame, and the subsequent social consequences, will with diagnostic labels.

While there’s not a huge body of research on this topic, the claim is far from theoretical or anecdotal. Estroff et al. finds that people with severe mental illness can struggle to differentiate between their authentic personality and the stereotypes projected onto them by society (1991, p.361). One of the study’s participants is quoted as saying they constantly catch themselves “trying to prove that I’m normal or can handle things, but until the verdict’s in, I really don’t know” (Estroff et al., 1991, p.331). Expanding Sedgwick’s argument into this context, we see how stigmatization can cause those with mental illness(es) to base their sense of normalcy or stability on the way that other people interpret their behaviors.
Institutional Settings
Chew-Graham et al. finds that some medical students fear seeking help for their stress would deem them unfit as future medical professionals and change the way that future colleagues view their competence (2003, p.873). The students that didn’t seek help suffered from the same symptoms as their counterparts that did, but the risk of being associated with mental illness was enough to stop them from seeking any professional help (2003, p,878). Similarly, Mittal et al. finds that combat veterans suffering with PTSD hesitate “to seek treatment to avoid the ‘crazy’ label”. Their fear is that such a label will reframe their emotions, decisions, and behaviors in a negative way (2013, p.90).
Cultural Expectations
Cultural expectations not only amplify this problem but can also make it harder to address. Smart and Wegner find that women with eating disorders often try to mask behaviors rather than seek professional treatment for fear of being perceived as “less normal”. However, the masking only causes them further harm. They are more likely to suffer from intrusive thoughts about their eating disorder and more likely to perceive eating disorder characteristics in other people (i.e., project their experience) (1999, p.481). Similarly, Ellis et al. highlight the pressures that African American men feel to appear impermeable to stress. They describe how participants commonly turn to behaviors such as increased (or decreased) exercise and increased (or decreased) eating when stressed in lieu of talking to their partner or a professional (2015, p.110). These examples show how behaviors being associated with certain diagnoses robs people of the benefit of contextual interpretation; what otherwise might be seen as change in exercise simply due to a stretch of bad sleep becomes a change in exercise due to mental instability.
Violence
Diagnostic stigma can also influence the way harmful or violent behavior is interpreted. For example, the primary claim of Ordinary Men is that the violent actions of Reserve Police Battalion 101 can be explained by a desire to conform to social pressures (Browning, 1992). Yet when Ed (a man with mental illness interviewed by Estroff et al.) was triggered and subsequently attacked furniture in his parent’s home, they had him involuntarily committed to a hospital (Estroff et al., 1991, p.335). This contrast calls attention to the ways that diagnostic labels create a willingness to view “acting out” as something that needs to be punished rather than something that needs to be further understood.

Ultimately, shifting away from patterns of stigmatizing behavioral interpretation requires increased public education and a foundational change in how people think about the behavior of fellow humans (Byrne, 2000, p.67; Thoits, 2011, p.15). Rather than simply accepting the fact that we judge the actions of others, we have to challenge ourselves to ask questions such as “what assumptions am I making about this person because of the behavior I see?”. In the case of those we know with mental illness, we must ask ourselves “do I unknowingly view this person’ behavior through the lens of my own stigmatized understanding of their illness?”. Only then can we start to strip diagnostic labels of their power over behavior.

References:
Browning, C. R., & Mazal Holocaust Collection. (1992). Ordinary men : Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the final solution in Poland (1st ed.). HarperCollins.
Byrne, P. (2000). Stigma of mental illness and ways of diminishing it. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment : The Royal College of Psychiatrists’ Journal of Continuing Professional Development, 6(1), 65–72. https://doi.org/10.1192/apt.6.1.65
Chew-Graham, C. A., Rogers, A., & Yassin, N. (2003). “I wouldn’t want it on my CV or their records”: medical students’ experiences of help-seeking for mental health problems. Medical Education, 37(10), 873–880. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2923.2003.01627.x
Ellis, K. R., Griffith, D. M., Allen, J. O., Thorpe, R. J., & Bruce, M. A. (2015). “If you do nothing about stress, the next thing you know, you’re shattered”: Perspectives on African American men’s stress, coping and health from African American men and key women in their lives. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 139, 107–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.06.036
Estroff, S. E., Lachicotte, W. S., Illingworth, L. C., & Johnston, A. (1991). Everybody’s Got a Little Mental Illness: Accounts of Illness and Self among People with Severe, Persistent Mental Illnesses. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 5(4), 331–369. https://doi.org/10.1525/maq.1991.5.4.02a00030
Mittal, D., Drummond, K. L., Blevins, D., Curran, G., Corrigan, P., & Sullivan, G. (2013). Stigma Associated With PTSD: Perceptions of Treatment Seeking Combat Veterans. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 36(2), 86–92. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0094976
Sedgwick, P. (1972). Mental Illness Is Illness. Salmagundi (Saratoga Springs), 20, 196–224.
Smart, L., & Wegner, D. M. (1999). Covering Up What Can’t Be Seen: Concealable Stigma and Mental Control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(3), 474–486. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.3.474
Thoits, P. A. (2011). Resisting the Stigma of Mental Illness. Social Psychology Quarterly, 74(1), 6–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/0190272511398019

Discipline Across Cultures: How Our Norms Shape Trauma—and Why Cultural Competency Matters

When we talk about trauma, we often focus on the event: the physical abuse, the neglect, or the chronic stressor that overwhelms a child’s developing system. But we sometimes overlook a critical piece of the puzzle—the cultural context that shapes how discipline is defined, practiced, and interpreted. What is considered normal parenting in one culture may be viewed as harmful or abusive in another. For professionals working with children and families, understanding these distinctions is essential for culturally competent and trauma-informed practice.

Culture as a Lens for Interpreting Harm

Discipline is not a universal concept. In many collectivist cultures, strict or authoritarian parenting—including physical punishment—is viewed as a tool for building moral character and responsibility. In contrast, many Western cultures conceptualize discipline in terms of communication, emotional regulation, and behavior modeling (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).

Research shows that children interpret discipline through the meaning it holds within their cultural context. Lansford and Dodge (2008) found that corporal punishment predicted fewer negative outcomes in societies where it was culturally normative compared to societies where it was condemned. This suggests that perception and cultural meaning influence how discipline is internalized. However, cultural acceptance does not erase physiological stress responses associated with pain or fear. Van der Kolk (2014) emphasizes that the body keeps the score regardless of intention, and repeated exposure to threat or unpredictability can alter neural development. Even calmly delivered physical discipline can activate survival responses in the developing brain (Rousseau, 2025, Module 3).

This means that while cultural framing matters, it does not fully protect against trauma-related biological effects.

When Cultural Norms Collide With Trauma-Informed Practice

In U.S. child welfare work, these differences are frequently observed. Families may rely on yelling, spanking, or rigid structure because these practices align with cultural traditions or community expectations. Practitioners must therefore discern whether a behavior is a culturally rooted discipline or maltreatment that may produce trauma symptoms.

A trauma-informed approach requires asking questions such as:

• Does the child experience the discipline as frightening or predictable?

• Is there evidence of hyperarousal, avoidance, dissociation, or running away?

• Is the discipline consistent, structured, and paired with warmth, or chaotic and fear-based?

A child may not be traumatized by strict discipline when the environment is emotionally safe and predictable. Conversely, a child may experience trauma even without physical punishment if emotional volatility or unpredictability is present (Perry & Szalavitz, 2017). Van der Kolk (2014) argues that trauma is fundamentally about losing a sense of safety and control, which varies from family to family and culture to culture.

Cultural Competency Is Not Cultural Excusal

Cultural competency requires understanding the cultural meaning behind parenting practices, but it does not require excusing practices that are harmful. A culturally informed trauma approach integrates neuroscience with respect for cultural values and traditions.

Practitioners can engage families by:

• Explaining the neurobiology of stress and how harsh discipline impacts the developing brain.

• Connecting parental goals (respect, obedience, character-building) to trauma-informed alternatives.

• Affirming cultural identity while guiding families toward safer, regulation-supportive strategies.

Culturally adapted parenting models and trauma-informed programs have shown strong engagement and outcomes when they integrate traditional values with scientific knowledge (Lau, 2006).

The Risk of Bias in Assessing Trauma Across Cultures

Lack of cultural awareness can cause significant harm. Practitioners may:

• Misinterpret culturally familiar discipline as safe.

• Pathologize culturally normative practices because they differ from their own upbringing.

• Inadvertently impose Western parenting norms.

• Damage rapport with families by invalidating cultural identity.

Watters (2010) warns that Western mental health frameworks often fail when exported without cultural adaptation. The same risk applies in child welfare and trauma work. Trauma-informed practice demands cultural humility—a reflective awareness of how one’s own worldview influences interpretation.

Integrating Culture and Neuroscience in Practice

Because trauma is shaped by context and meaning, trauma response must be culturally grounded. Helpful approaches include:

• Ask before assuming. Invite families to describe the values and beliefs behind their discipline practices.

• Align cultural values with trauma-informed alternatives. Show parents how their goals can be achieved safely.

• Center the child’s experience. If a child displays trauma symptoms, those must guide intervention regardless of cultural norms.

• Reflect on personal bias. Practitioners must examine their own assumptions about “appropriate” parenting.

• Use culturally adapted programs. Tailored interventions increase family engagement (Lau, 2006).

Conclusion

Understanding differences in discipline across cultures is essential to effective trauma work. Culture shapes how discipline is delivered and interpreted, but trauma shapes how discipline is felt. When practitioners integrate cultural context with trauma-informed neuroscience, they can protect children, respect families, and promote healing. Cultural competency is not an optional skill—it is the foundation of ethical and effective practice.

References

Gershoff, E. T., & Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2016). Spanking and child outcomes: Old controversies and new meta-analyses. Journal of Family Psychology, 30(4), 453–469. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000191

Lansford, J. E., & Dodge, K. A. (2008). Cultural norms for adult corporal punishment predict children's internalization of discipline and adjustment. Child Development, 79(6), 1629–1645. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01222.x

Lau, A. S. (2006). Making the case for selective and directed cultural adaptations of evidence-based treatments: Examples from parent training. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 13(4), 295–310. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2850.2006.00042.x

Perry, B. D., & Szalavitz, M. (2017). The boy who was raised as a dog: And other stories from a child psychiatrist’s notebook. Basic Books.

Rousseau, D. (2025). Module 3: Neurobiology of trauma [Course content]. Boston University MET CJ 720.

Van der Kolk, B. A. (2014). The body keeps the score: Brain, mind, and body in the healing of trauma. Viking.

Watters, E. (2010). Crazy like us: The globalization of the American psyche. Free Press.